Difference between revisions of "Spanish West Indies"

Latest revision as of 12:47, November 1, 2015

Research questions

• Population size of towns and cities in 1650?
• Position of towns and cities in administrative structures?
• Travel times from Lima, Cartagena and Vera Cruz to Havana and then to Cadiz?
• Secondary source material on Flandrian and English textiles sold in Peru in exchange for silver?

Places named in depositions

Caracas

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

- he [EDITOR: Manuell Corea [alt. Mannuell Corea; Correa], resident at Varinas] "hath knowne the arlate Lewis ffernandez Angell an inhabitant of Caracas in the West Indies for theis twelve yeares last past"^[1]

- Antonio da Ponte [alt. Don Antonio de Ponte] - "of Garachicho in the Island of Tenariffa", but appears to have lived in Caracas in the West Indies for eight years where he knew Lewis ffernandez Angell, prior to returning to Cadiz in 1552 in the Saint John Baptist via Havana^[2]

Historical context

- Caracas is the capital of modern Venezuela
- See Wikipedia entry: Timeline of Caracas
- See entry: Caracas

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Nova Cartagena

Historical context

- John Mexia de Herrera deposed in support of Thomas Sanchex da Urisa that "the said Thomas Sanchez de Urisa was and is the true lawfull and sole owner of the said silver and laded the same for his owne accompt, and that none other hath any interest therein, which hee knoweth for that hee this examinate was acquainted with his gaining and getting thereof in the West Indies by way of traffique and merchandize and came thence in his company, and sawe him carry two baggs and the rest of [?XXX] from Lima [?or] Panama and thense to Porto bello and tooke notice of the markes of the same, and from Porto bello this deponent came in the same fleete with him the said producent for Spania, and sawe him lade the same at Porto bello aboard the Admirall of the Gallion wherein hee came passenger, and after the arivall of the said fleete at Nova Cartagena where the same touched in their passage for Spaine, the said producent did there cast and make the smallest of the said three bagges of certaine of the peeces of eight brought alonge with him of this deponents knowledge."^[3]

Historical context

See Wikipedia entry: Cartagena, Colombia
- founded in 1533, and named after cartagena in Spain. Area had prior indigenous settlements

La Vera Cruz in Nova Hispania

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

Vera Cruz in Nova Hispania is mentioned in the claims of three men in the Silver Ships material. (1) Once as the place of residence of ffrancisco da Cairodge, who is a born Biscay man, and is described as a treasuer of the King of Spain at Vera Cruz. His specific location is given as "neere the ffranciscans College in Vera Cruz". (2) The second time as the place from which Caracas resident Anthonye de Ponte brought merchandizes which he exchanged at Havana for silver (3) The third time in support of the claim of Lorenzo de Veles for his moneys, plate and goods in the Sampson

- "the sayd ffrancisco da Cairodge is a native of Biskay in Spaine and of the knowledge of this deponent hath for theis thirteene yeares now past bene an Inhabitant of Vera Cruz in Nova Hispania in the West Indies and is a subiect of the King of Spaine and so accounted, being one of the Treasurers of and for the sayd King att Vera Cruz aforesayd"^[4]

- "ffrancisco da Coirodge delivered this deponent [EDITOR: Lorenzo de Veles, a thirty-eight year old merchant of Dunkirk, who was a frequent traveller between the Spanish West Indies and Spain, acting as an agent of others] the sayd Cochineale att Vera Cruz and gave him expresse order by word of mouth to carry the same to fflanders and there dispose it for his accompt"^[5]

- "Pedro Arangel lived neere to the ffranciscans Cloyster in Cadiz and ffrancisco da [?Coyrodge] neere the ffranciscans College in Vera Cruz aforesayd"^[6]

- "he this deponent [EDITOR: Caracas resident merchant Anthonye de Ponte] being att La Vera Cruz in Nova Hispania there saw the sayd Antonio de Ponte having laden aboard a small frigat contayne merchandizes of that Country sett sayle and depart with the same for the Havana in the West Indies" ^[7]

- "the sayd producent [EDITOR: Caracas resident merchant Anthonye de Ponte] departed from La Vera Cruz about the month of May, sett sayle from the Havana in June, and arrived att Cadize aforesayd about the latter end of July 1652"^[8]

- Roderigo Alonzo, a Cadiz merchant, deposed in support of Lorenzo de Veles that "hee this deponent came from the said Indies in the same fleete with him, and sawe him in the possession thereof at Vera Cruz in Nova Hispania where and in other parts of the Indies hee gained the same with traffique and merchandize, and at vera Cruz this deponent sawe him imbarque the same aboard the Admirall of the Spanish fleete bound for Cales, and at vera Cruz this deponent helped the producent to sewe up the said plate and mark the same, and helped to tell and sawe the telling of all the said peeces of eight, assisting therein the said producent, who assisted him in the like occasion"^[9] Note that Lorenzo de Veles, a merchant of Dunkirk, living in Indies and at Cadiz "as occasion offers" appears to have moved around the Spanish West Indies. For example, "this deponent [Lorenzo de Veles] saw all and singular the before mentioned sylver in the possession of the sayd Arangall and Mannrga att Mexico in the Indies where they bought the sylver"^[10] and carried cases of bon lace of Flanders to Nova Hispania for Abraham van Hembeck of Antwerpen^[11]

-Roderigo Alonzo further deposed in support of the same claim that "the master of the said Admirall of the said Spanish fleete wherein the said silver brought from the Indies came, was ffrancisco Galban by name, and the Vaptaines name was don ffrancisco da Sosa, who succeeded Captaine [?Traminie] that died at Vera Cruz"^[12]

IDENTIFY ffrancisco Galban
IDENTIFY Captaine [?Traminie]
IDENTIFY don ffrancisco da Sosa

Historical context

See Wikipedia article: Veracruz (city)

- Founded by Spanish between 1518 and 1523, but previously inhabited by indigenous peoples
- Located on southeastern coast of modern Mexico
- Important trading city, located as last trade stop prior to Havana on the route of "La Flotta"

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Gilbralt[?er]

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

Thomas Juan stated by Anthonio De La Rosa to have bought tobacco at "the ffayre att Gibralter in the West India" from several men and "brought it afterwards to Marachio distant about five and twenty leagues from the same port".^[13]

Historical context

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Havana

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

At least two of the Spanish deponents in the Silver Ship lititagation purchased their silver in Havana (which was subsequently seized by the English). The first of these deponents was the thirty year old merchant, Antonio da Ponte of Garachicho. The second of these deponents was Lewis ffernandez Angell, a Spaniard by birth, who had lived at Caracas for the last twelve years.

Laawrence de Veles, a twenty eight year old Spanish merchant, stated that "he this deponent being att La Nova Cruz in Nova Hispania there saw the sayd Antonio de Ponte having laden aboard a small frigat contayne merchandizes of that Country sett sayle and depart with the same for the Havana in the West Indies, whither this deponent afterwards [with?] about four or five and twenty [es] dayes after comeing with the ffleet found him the sayd Antonio de Ponte there, and with the proceed of his foresayd merchandizes there saw him the sayd Antonio buy the arlate barres of sylver there weighed"^[14]

Towards end of Apr 1652 (probably new style), Thomas Sanchez da Vicar advised Don Antonio da Ponte at "the Havana" to buy silver plate, rather than pieces of eight. Da Ponte followed this advice and bought six bars of silver, which he loaded onto the Saint Juan Baptista^[15]

May 1652 (probably new style, Roderigo Alonzo remembered "that he this deponent being att the West Indies in the sayd moneth of May 1652 there [?saw] the arlate Don Antonio [da Ponte] buy the same att the Havana, and afterwards for his owne accompt to embarque the same upon the Saint Juan Baptista Juan Sericho Master to be transported to Cadize arlate"^[16]

Probably in May 1652 (according to Antonio da Ponte), Lewis ffernandez Angell purchased "thirteen barrs of plate of sylver", which he bought "at the Havana in the West Indies with the proceed of other merchandise", and which he then laded at the Havana onto the Saint John Baptist"^[17]

Jun 1652 (new style), the ship the Saint John Baptist or Saint Juan Baptista "sett sayle from the Havana in June"^[18]

Jul 1652 [possibly the latter end] (new style), the ship the Saint John Baptist or Saint Juan Baptista arrived at Cadiz from Havana (Captain: John Sericho), carrying as passengers Lewis ffernandez Angell and Don Antonio de Ponte, who subsequently laded silver onto the Sampson and went as passengers on the Sampson from Cadiz bound (allegedly) for Ostend^{[19] [20]}

Historical context

De Stadt ende Bay van Havana geleegen op 't Eylandt Cuba, ca. 1665, by Johannes Vingboons, pub by Wikipedia Commons

A plan of the city and harbour of Havanna situated on the island of Cuba, by Thomas Milton, dated 1739, pub. by Wikipedia Commons

See Wikipedia article: History of Havana
- By a Spanish royal decree of 1561, all ships headed for Spain were required to assemble in Havana BaY. "Ships arrived from May through August, waiting for the best weather conditions, and together, the fleet departed Havana for Spain by September...Goods traded in Havana included gold, silver, alpaca wool from the Andes, emeralds from Colombia, mahoganies from Cuba and Guatemala, leather from the Guajira, spices, sticks of dye from Campeche, corn, manioc, and cocoa. Ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the city's bay also fueled Havana's agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water, and other products needed to traverse the ocean"^[21]
- Havana was designated a City by Phillip II in 1592, and was greatly expanded in the C17th
- Deadly epidemic devastated Havana in 1649, brought from Cartagena

Questions

• Population size of Havana in 1650?

Hispaniola

Mentioned in Slver Ship material

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Historical context

See Wikipedia article: Hispaniola

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Limma [alt. Lima]

Mentioned in Slver Ship material

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Historical context

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Lima was the governing city of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Two viceroys governed during the period concerning the three Silver Ships. Pedro de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Mancera (1639-1648)^[22] and García Sarmiento de Sotomayor, 2nd Count of Salvatierra (1648-1655)^[23] García Sarmiento de Sotomayor was viceroy of New Spain (1642-1648), prior to assuming the Viceroyship of Peru in 1648.

The viceroyalty of New Spain was governed from Mexico City.

Wikipedia provides a useful overview of the history of Lima, including the colonial period.^[24] The Wikipedia entry for the colonial priod describes the city as a key commercial hub: "Lima flourished during the 17th century as the center of an extensive trade network which integrated the Viceroyalty of Peru with the Americas, Europe and the Far East."^[25] "Its merchants channeled Peruvian silver through the nearby port of Callao and exchanged it for imported goods at the trade fair of Portobelo in modern day Panama."^[26] "This practice was sanctioned by law as all trade from the Viceroyalty was required to go through Callao on its way to and from overseas markets. The resulting economic prosperity of the city was reflected in its rapid growth, population expanded from about 25,000 in 1619 to an estimated 80,000 in 1687."^[27]

[INSERT MAP OF COLONIAL PERU]

Callao [EXPAND ON CALLAO]

Marachio

Mentioned in Slver Ship material

Tobacco laded on board the Nostra Seigniora del Rosario for her master Antonio de la Rosa by twenty-five year old Cadiz merchant Guillermo Crombeen^[28] [EXPAND THIS REFERENCE]

Historical context

CHECK whether "Marachio" = modern "Maracaibo", a city near the coast of modern Venezuela

Mexico

Mentioned in Slver Ship material

For example, "this deponent [Lorenzo de Veles] saw all and singular the before mentioned sylver in the possession of the sayd Arangall and Mannrga att Mexico in the Indies where they bought the sylver"^[29] and carried cases of bon lace of Flanders to Nova Hispania for Abraham van Hembeck of Antwerpen^[30]

Historical context

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Panama

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

The carriage of Antonio Stephen da Bolderas's silver from Lima via Panama and Porto Ballo [alt. Bello] onto the ship of the Vice Admirall of the Galleons is mentioned by three separate deponents in the Silver Ship material. The silver and goods of Thomas Sanchex da Urisa, one of the deponents for da Bolderas, also passed along the same route, as we learn from John Mexia de Herrera. We also learn the silver and goods of da Urissa (and presumably also of da Bolderas) went from Porto Ballo/Bello via Nova Cartagena before arriving at Havana.

- Thomas Sanchez de Orisa, merchant of Valodolid, but dwelling in Lima in Peru, stated that "hee well knoweth the arlate Anthony Stephen da Balderas and hath soe donne for theise fifteene yeares last, and saith that in the yeare 1643 or thereabouts the said Anthony Stephan da Balderas the producent came from Spaine into the West Indias where this deponent was and continued there till about the moneth of december 1651 at which time the said producent and this deponent imbarqued themselves and came thence in the fleete bound for Spaine and this deponent well knoweth that the said producent brought five severall barrs of silver a bagg of redd wooll of the severall markes allegate (now showne unto him) from the West Indias for Spaine, this deponent seeing him bringe the same from Lima to Panama, thence to Porto Ballo, and thence for Spaine in which passage from Lima to Panama and soe to Porto bello this deponent went in the company of the said producent"^[31]

- "hee this deponent [EDITOR: John de Losa Barona, merchant of Segovia in Spain, but living at Lima in Peru] was in the West Indias with the said producent [EDITOR: Antonio Stephen da Bolderas] and acquainted with his gaining and obteyning the said silver and woolls by his traffique and dealing in merchandize and seeing him carry them from Lima to Panama, and thence to Porto Ballo and thence for Spaine, this deponent comming in the same fleete from the Indias with him and in the same shipp and seeing him the said producent at Cadiz..."^[32]

- John Mexia de Herrera, a merchant of Toledo in Spain, but living in Lima in Peru, stated he knew Antonio Stephen da Bolderas well in the West Indies "and saith that the said producent had and got in the said Indies in traffique the silver in question namely two barrs of the first marke in the margin of the said allegation one of the second marke and two of the third marke and a bagge of red wooll of the fourth marke, which hee carried with him from Lima to Panama and thence to Porto bello in the West Indias in which passage this deponent went in his company and tooke notice of the said parcells and markes, and at Porto bello the said producent and this deponent imbarqued themselves in the Vice Admirall of the Gallions for Spaine, in which vessell the said producent brought his said five barrs of silver and bagge of wooll of this deponents sight and knowledge, and upon their arrivall at Cadiz this deponent sawe him land the same and afterwards namely in the moneth of September last past or thereabouts this deponent sawe the said producent carry the said five barrs of silver and bagge of wooll into a boate at Cadiz to be carried and laden aboard the shipps Saint George and Sampson arlate"^[33]

- John Mexia de Herrera deposed in support of Thomas Sanchex da Urisa that "the said Thomas Sanchez de Urisa was and is the true lawfull and sole owner of the said silver and laded the same for his owne accompt, and that none other hath any interest therein, which hee knoweth for that hee this examinate was acquainted with his gaining and getting thereof in the West Indies by way of traffique and merchandize and came thence in his company, and sawe him carry two baggs and the rest of [?XXX] from Lima [?or] Panama and thense to Porto bello and tooke notice of the markes of the same, and from Porto bello this deponent came in the same fleete with him the said producent for Spania, and sawe him lade the same at Porto bello aboard the Admirall of the Gallion wherein hee came passenger, and after the arivall of the said fleete at Nova Cartagena where the same touched in their passage for Spaine, the said producent did there cast and make the smallest of the said three bagges of certaine of the peeces of eight brought alonge with him of this deponents knowledge."^[34]

Historical context

Panama City was founded in 1519 by the Spamish conquistador Pedro Arias Dávila. "It was a stopover point on one of the most important trade routes in the history of the American continent, leading to the fairs of Nombre de Dios and Portobelo, through which passed most of the gold and silver that Spain took from the Americas."^[35]

"Nombre de Dios is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental Americas. Originally a major port of call for the Spanish treasure fleet, Nombre de Dios was the most significant port for shipping in the Americas between 1540 and 1580. After the opening of Potosí in 1546, silver was shipped north to Panama City and carried by mule train across the isthmus to Nombre de Dios for shipment to Havana and Spain."^[36]

Peru

Mentioned in Slver Ship material

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Historical context

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Portobelo [alt. Porto Bello; Porto Ballo]

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

- John Mexia de Herrera deposed in support of Thomas Sanchex da Urisa that "the said Thomas Sanchez de Urisa was and is the true lawfull and sole owner of the said silver and laded the same for his owne accompt, and that none other hath any interest therein, which hee knoweth for that hee this examinate was acquainted with his gaining and getting thereof in the West Indies by way of traffique and merchandize and came thence in his company, and sawe him carry two baggs and the rest of [?XXX] from Lima [?or] Panama and thense to Porto bello and tooke notice of the markes of the same, and from Porto bello this deponent came in the same fleete with him the said producent for Spania, and sawe him lade the same at Porto bello aboard the Admirall of the Gallion wherein hee came passenger, and after the arivall of the said fleete at Nova Cartagena where the same touched in their passage for Spaine, the said producent did there cast and make the smallest of the said three bagges of certaine of the peeces of eight brought alonge with him of this deponents knowledge."^[37]

Historical context

See Wikipedia entry: Portobelo, Colón
- located in the modern Colón Province in Panama
- town of of San Felipe de Portobelo was founded in 1597 by Spanish explorer Francisco Velarde y Mercado, after which it quickly replaces Nombre de Dios as the principal Caribbean port for Peruvian silver transported from the west coast
- subject to extensive fortification, since the port was a major staging port for the Galleons en route to Havana^[38]

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Varinas

Mentioned in Silver Ship material

Tobacco bought at Varinas in the West Indies for John Baptista Sabino by Manuel Correa and brought first to Marachaio in the West Indies, and from thence in the Nostra Seigniora del Rosario to Cadiz, where it was laden on board the ships the Sampson and Salvador^[39]

Historical context

CHECK whether Varinas was a province of New Spain

CHECK whether Varinas = "Province of Verina", as described by Alexander von Humboldt^[40]

CHECK whether Varinas = "Barinas" in Spanish documents, and "Barinas" in modern Venezulea (which is ca. 200 km south of the coast)
A 1819 British source states that Varinas lay under the government of Caraccas abd gave its latitude as 7 40 0 N. and longitude as blank^[41]

Mexican silver mining

- Spanish viceregal state did not participate directly in silver mining^[42]
- deep shaft silver mining was introduced into colonial Mexico in the C16th, and by the 1570s was "a dynamic, technologically complex, capital-intensive enterprize owned by a fairly smalll number of creoles or Spaniards, and it continued to be so". Silver mines were located in northern and central New Spain. Northern mines include San Luis Potosí, Zacatecas, Sombrerete, Cuencamé, Topia and Parral. Central mines include Pachuca, Taxco, Sultepec, and Cuautla. Exhaustion of high-quality surface deposits led to deep shaft mining of lower-grade silver oil by 1570s, using mercury to amalgamate with the ore.^[43]
- The C17th saw the capital requirements of silver mining increasing as silver yield from amalgamated ore dropped and miners had to purchase more mercury per unit of silver produced^[44]

Peruvian silver mining

- Mexican silver mining was superceeded in importance by Peruvian silver mining by the early C17th
- Mining town of Potosí, in modern Bolivia, fell under the viceroyalty of Peru and was known as Alto Peru (Upper Peru). The mining town was founded in 1545, and employed prodigious quantities of indeigenous labourers as well as some imported African slaves.^[45]
- An online source, using Library of Congress and CIA Factbook sources, states that "By the middle of the seventeenth century, silver mining at Potosí had become so important that the city had the largest population in the Western Hemisphere, approximately 160,000 inhabitants". The same source desscribes the sophisticated use of hydraulic power, using a system of articfical lakes in place by 1621, to support a number of large refining centers.^[46]

[EXPAND]

• Search for "History of Peruvian silver mining"

Spanish colonial Atlantic trade system in C17th

Ana Crespo Solano describes the long established Spanish colonial trade system in the Atlantic, prior to the Treaty of Utrecht:

"Spanish colonial trade followed a route which ran across the Atlantic from the ports of Andalusia to the Canary Islands and then on to the Antilles. It then forked off in the direction of the approved ports for the two viceroyalties: Peru and New Spain. The Spanish Crown created legislation (influenced mostly by the economic elite close to the kings of Castile) stating that the colonization and exploitation of the Americas was a private enterprise, but with collaboration and fiscal supervision from the Crown by means of a few institutions created for this purpose. Spanish colonial trade between the 16th and 18th centuries was an undertaking which was intended to be a state business (subject to monopolies and licences), but privately financed. This was a model which had previously been developed in Europe when commercial traffic took place within a particular area, as in the case of Cantabrian trade with Flanders (Flanders Route and Eastern Route from the Middle Ages onwards), trade with the Hansa, or even Portuguese trade from the 14th century. In 1569, the two fleets were clearly identified: the Flota de Nueva España (Fleet of New Spain), with a final destination in the port of Veracruz (required to set sail from Spain in the month of April); and the fleet headed for the continent (Galleons of Terra Firma), bound for Nombre de Dios – a port later replaced by Portobelo (Panama) – which was to depart in August. Every year, these two fleets spent the winter in the Indies and met in March at the port in Havana to undertake the return ocean crossing to the peninsula together (García-Baquero González, 1992)."^[47]

Map 1. Routes of the Fleets and Galleons, from Ana Crespo Solana (2014)

Map 2. Trade in the Caribbean and the subsidiary fleets, from Ana Crespo Solana (2014)

Administration of the Americas

The Americas were incorporated into the Crown of Castile, with two key viceroyalties governing the most populous and wealthy regions. The Viceroyalty of Peru was governed from Lima and governed over Peru and South America. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was governed from Mexico Coty and governed over Mexico and the Philippines. In addition the viceroyalty of New Spain supervised other North American, Central American, Caribbean and East Indian areas, and the viceroyalty of Peru supervised other South American teritories. The exception was much of modern Venezuela, which was supervised by the high court or Audiencia of Santa Domingo on the island of Hispaniola.^[48]

Potential sources

Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985)
D.A. Brading, D. A. and Harry E. Cross. “Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru.” Hispanic American Historical Review 52 (1972): 545–579.
- A clear, schematic comparison of Mexican and south central Andean silver mining, treating geology, technology, crown intervention, capital structure, and labor.
- cited in Kris Lane, Mining, Gold, and Silver, Oxford Bibliographies (online resource), last modified 25 May 2011
Pierre Chaunu, Séville et l'Atlantique
- collection of statistics on owners, masters, kinds, cargoes, tonnage and routes to and from the Indies 1504-1650
- synthesised in Pierre Chaunu, Conquête et exploitation des nouveaux mondes
Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590-1660: Silver, State, and Society (Durham & London, 1991)
- includes discussion of mining and operation of the mint
- discussion of role of merchant producers and financiers (p.72)
Heidi V. Scott, Mapping Peru in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Notre Dame, 2009)

1. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.6v
2. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.1r
3. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.4v
4. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 4 f.12r
5. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 4 f.12v
6. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 8 f.6r
7. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.8r
8. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.8v
9. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.7v
10. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2759]
11. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2773]]
12. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.8v
13. ↑ HCA 13/67 f.? IMG_117_07_1487
14. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.8r
15. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.12r
16. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.13v
17. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.1r
18. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2563]
19. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.1r; HCA 13/69 Silver 1 f.2v
20. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2563]
21. ↑ Wikipedia article: History of Havana: Pirates and La Flota
22. ↑ Wikipedia entry: Pedro de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Mancera
23. ↑ Wikipedia entry: García Sarmiento de Sotomayor, 2nd Count of Salvatierra
24. ↑ Wikipedia entry: History of Lima
25. ↑ Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), pp. 11–13
26. ↑ Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), p.16
27. ↑ Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985), p.30
28. ↑ HCA 13/67 f.? IMG_117_07_1466
29. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2759]
30. ↑ [IMG_118_07_2773]]
31. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.1r
32. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.2v
33. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.3v
34. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.4v
35. ↑ Wikipedia entry: Panama City
36. ↑ Wikipedia entry: Nombre de Dios, Colón
37. ↑ HCA 13/69 Silver 5 f.4v
38. ↑ [Wikipedia entry: Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]
39. ↑ HCA 13/67 f.? IMG_117_07_1468
40. ↑ Map plate of Province of Verina in Humboldt, Alexander von. 1819-1829. Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of the New Continent, during the years 1799-1804. By Alexander de Humboldt, and Aimé Bonpland; with maps, plans, &c. written in French by Alexander de Humboldt, and trans. into English by Helen Maria Williams. 7 vols. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. Vol. 3.
41. ↑ Sir Richard Henry Bonnycastle, Spanish America: Or, A Descriptive, Historical, and Geographical Account of the Dominions of Spain (London, 1819), p.450
42. ↑ Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590-1660: Silver, State, and Society (Durham & London, 1991), p.73)
43. ↑ Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590-1660: Silver, State, and Society (Durham & London, 1991), p.73)
44. ↑ Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590-1660: Silver, State, and Society (Durham & London, 1991), p.74)
45. ↑ Wikipedia article: Potosí: History and silver extraction
46. ↑ Bolivia The Economy of Upper Peru, sourced from The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook (1989)
47. ↑ Crespo Solana, Ana (2014). “The formation of a social Hispanic Atlantic space and the integration of merchant communities following the Treaties of Utrecht”. Culture & History Digital Journal, 3(1): e007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2014.007
48. ↑ Wikipedia entry: Viceroy: 1. Spanish Empire 1.2 In the Americas