Difference between revisions of "Identity"

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'''Identity'''
 
'''Identity'''
  
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'''Editorial history'''
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==Language and identity==
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The mid-C17th commercial world was one of many languages coexisting and interacting, without a super-regional dominant trade language. By exploring the languages used in communication by mariners and merchants of different ports, we may discover new insights into relations within geographical areas such as the Mediterranean and the East Country.
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Mid-C17th admiralty testimony regarding language, especially spoken languages, sometimes surprises modern expectations. Such testimony reveals complex relationships connecting language and identity (both personal and group).
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<u>Case study: Italian</u>
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When the ship the ''Ryall'' was surprised and taken by the ''Tyger'', on the immediate service of the Commonwealth, the boatswaine of the ''Tyger'' was dispatched in the ship's yawle to bord the ''Ryall'' and to enquire where the ship came from and to learn the source of its lading of rice.  The boatswaine was a forty-four year old mariner named John Snarey from Blackwall in the parish of Stepney.  The man who replied was a Greek ("a Grecian"), who spoke to him in Italian, and at least part of the ensuing conversation took place in Italian, the English boatswaine understanding the Italian tongue.
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"''Hee was in the first place answered by a Grecian (who spoke the Italian tongue which this deponent understandeth, and who was of the said ship that the said Rice was taken in the AXXXX by the Italian men of warre from the Turks and that the same upon the Coast of Morea within the Archipelagos was in the Lumpe or GroXX Laden on board the ''Ryall'' by the Captaine of the said ship who was a frenchman and who had bought the said Rice of the said Italian man of warre, the said Grecian allsoe then affirmeinge and telling this deponent that after such tyme as the said ffrench Captaine had soe bought the same the Company of the ''Ryall'' by theire said Captaines order did make such speed to unlade and relate the same on board the ''Ryall'' that they never measured the saiid Rice but least any obstruction by any other men of warre should interveene the same withall hast was put on bord the ''Ryall'' out of the Italian man of warre unmeasured, and that the said Rice was XXXXXXXX measureing as this deponent conceiveth it was first prize as being taken from the Turkes and now againe prize in the second place as being taken by the ''Tyger''...''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180053]</ref>
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John Snarney continued his evidence, offering confirmation of his earlier statement:
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"''Soe much hee this deponent saith was affirmed and told to the deponent ymediatly after both by a West ffrenchman who spoke the Italian Tongue and was Gunners mate of the said ship and allsoe by one Charles an Englishman who was carpenter thereof''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180054]</ref>
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How did the boatswaine come to understand Italian, and how good and active was his knowledge?  An answer by the same boatswaine to a crosse interrogatorie provides insight into the nature and source of his knowledge of Snarney's Italian:
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"''Hee saith and deposeth hee cannot speake the french tongue but saith hee can both speake and understand a great part of the comon or vulgar Italian tongue which hee learnt by his trading and travelling for many yeares together to Genoa, Leghorne, Naples. Civita Vechia, Messina Palermo Trapane Venice Zant, and other parts and places thereabouts''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180055]</ref>
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The boatswaine's skills in comprehending and speaking Italian as a trade language were significant, though he says nothing about an ability to read or write in Italian.  They had been acquired "on the job", and were considerably stronger than the language skills of his contest, Francis Douglas.  Douglas was a twenty-nine year old mariner and foresmast man on the ''Triumph''. Like Snarney he was from the London areas, giving his residence as the parish of Saint Olave within the Burroughe of Southwarke. He boarded the ''Ryall'' the following morning, and stated that:
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"''Hee can speake a little both of the Spanishe and Italian tongues and can in some measure understand them And saith that hee learnt the said languages by his often being at Cadiz Saint Lucar, Genoa Leghorne, And other places thereabout''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180056]</ref>
  
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'''19/06/13''': CSG created page
 
 
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'''Purpose of this page'''
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==Birthplace and identity==
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XXXX
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'''Adding footnotes'''
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==Religion and identity==
  
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The religious beliefs of Admiralty Court deponents are rarely explored in Court. However, occasional references to such beliefs offer some insights into identity.
  
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Most (though not all) of the deponents from Spain, Italy, and France will have been Roman Catholics.  However, there will also have been Jews, Calvinists, and others.
  
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<nowiki><ref>This is the footnote text</ref></nowiki>
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What evidence have we uncovered to date?
  
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* Replace 'This is the footnote text' with the footnote you wish to add, using the format: first name, surname, title, (place of publication, date of publication), page or folio number
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XXX
  
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==Concept of 'Nation'==
  
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'''Creating an electronic link within the footnote to a digital source'''
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'''Barbary'''
  
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* Using the link icon in the top RH menu bar in your open window, highlight the footnote text which you wish to become the clickable link. This will place square brackets round the text, within the existing curved brackets
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Cities on the southern shore of the Mediterrean, are usually referred to in Admiralty Court depositions without further geographical names. Thus, deponents refer to "Sally, "Tituan", and "XXX", without placing them "in Barbary".
  
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e.g. <nowiki><ref>[Electronic link to a digital source]</ref></nowiki>
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Their linguistic treatment resembles that of Italian cities mentioned in Admiralty Court depositions. "Genoa", "Venice, and "Livorno" are identified without placing them in Italy, or in the case of Livorno in "Tuscany".
  
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* Insert the URL of the digital source IN FRONT of the existing text, but still within the square brackets, leaving one space between the end of the URL and the start of the footnote text
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Exceptions exist. XXXX stated that he departed in October 1650 from Cadiz in a
  
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e.g. <nowiki><ref>[http://XXXXX Electronic link to a digital source]</ref></nowiki>
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"''shipp of Amsterdam called the ''Moone'' commanded by Gavart Reael bound for Sally in Barbary whither this deponent went to redeeme one William ff?earne a Captaine''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170637]</ref>
  
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* Save the page, and the footnote text will now show 'Electronic link to a digital source' as a clickable link, which, when clicked, will go to 'http://XXXXX'
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<u>Are there differences in how mariners and merchants of different countries use geographical terminology?</u>
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CHECK THE FOLLOWING REFERENCE: ?French owned ship set sail from Lygorne bound for Alexandria "on the Coast of Scanderon in Barbary"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180107]</ref>
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'''East Country'''
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The treatment of countries to the North and East of modern Germany, and including several cities now in Germany, is more complex than that of the southern shore of the Mediterranean.  This may reflect the complex political reality, as defined and fought over in wars throughout the early part of the C17th, and greater familiarity with the geographical area.
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The term "East country" is used with moderate frequency in Admiralty Court depositions, to give a general sense of trading area.  But when towns and cities are named, and placed in a broader context, they tend to be placed within named political entities, such as "of dantsicke in Poland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170910]</ref>, "of Turnovia in Poland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170898]</ref>, "of Stockholme in Swedland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.62v P1170499]</ref>, "of Stockholme within the Kingdome of Swadland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.64r P1170502]</ref>, "of Copenhagen in denmarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.71r P1170516]</ref>, and "of Stettin in Pomerland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1170870]</ref>.
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However, there is also an example of "of Stettyn", without any broader context<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1180245]</ref>.
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<u>Denmark</u>
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* "Of Sonder Sea in danamarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1180238]</ref>
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* "Of Zuder-Zea in the Dukedom of holstein and the kingdome of Denmarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180420]</ref>
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<u>Norway</u>
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Norway is a tricky one. Referred to as a country in the deposition of XXXX, towns within Norway such as Berghen (Nor=Berghen, Bergen) are usually described simply as "of Norway". However, the deponent Christopher Aronson, master of the ship the Saint Oula, is described more fully as "of Tunsbury in Norway in the kingdome of Denmarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.118r P1170606]</ref>. Yet the claim for which he was deposing is titled more simply:
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"''The Claime of Andrew Matson and Company Merchants of Tunsbury in Norway for the shipp the Saint Oula whereof Christopher Aronsen is Master taken by the shipp the Nonshuch ketch whereof Captaine John king is Comander etcetera''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.118r P1170606]</ref>
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<u>Germany</u>
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The term "Germany" appears only occasionally in Admiralty Court depositions, as in "of Breme in Germany"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.4r P1170382]</ref> (Though see also "of Bremen in the Dominion of the kinge of Denmarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.160r P1170690]</ref>)
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<u>Free cities</u>
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Hamburgh, typically spelled either "Hamborowe" and "Hamborough", appears almost always simply as "of Hamborowe" and "of Hambourgh"
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* "of the free citie of Aken"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1180683]</ref>, and ""Hee this deponent was and is a subiect of the free towne of Aken in Germanie, where hee was home and lived till hee was about fifteene yeares, and then hee went and travailed into ffrance and dwelt there foure yeares, and since hee hath continued travailing and voyaging up and downe being a XXXXX and hath bin twice in Brazila"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1180684]</ref>
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* Nicholas Sterley, a twenty-eight year old merchant (in his own words) "was borne in the said free mark Imperiall hansatowne of Lubeck and lived there all his time till about three or foure yeares since in which space hee made two voyages to the Brazila, and that hee was and is a subiect of the said free state of Lubeck, and a batchelour"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.?P1180682]</ref>
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'''England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales'''
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There is absolutely no mention of a unifying political entity such as "Great Britain"
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<u>England</u>
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<u>Ireland</u>
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* "of Dublin in Ireland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170932]</ref>
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<u>Scotland</u>
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<u>Wales</u>
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The entity of Wales has little visibilty.  Whereas towns and cities in Ireland are described, almost without exception, as "in Ireland", towns in Wales tend to be descibed by reference to their County, for example, "of Glamorgan".
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'''Flanders/The Spanish Netherlands'''
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* "This deponent hath had and has correspondence in merchandize with him the said Cornelius and with his sonne the arlate Garrard knife who in the said dealing and correspondence they the said producents are in partnershipp and companie, and saith they were and are Dutchmen, and dwellers in the citie of Antwerp and subiects of the kinge of Spaine, and for such they were and are commonly accompted and reputed."<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180642]</ref>
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* Many of the merchants residing in Antwerp had Spanish names and trading links with Spain (and the Spanish West Indies?) were strong
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* "of Antwerpe in Braband"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180573]</ref>
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* "of Ostend in fflanders" (frequent, rather than "of Ostend")
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* "of Bridges in fflanders"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180140]</ref>
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* "of Gant in fflanders"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180271]</ref>
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* "of Newport in fflanders"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180540]</ref>
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'''France'''
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There is a clear tendency in the Admiralty court to place french towns within their provincial context, with or without a broader reference to "France" or the "Kingdom of France".
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Thus, we see "of Saint Martin La BlaXX in Normandie"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170951]</ref>, "of ffrontot  neare kilbeufe in Normandie"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180111]</ref>, "of Honfleur in Normandy within the Kingdome of France"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180548]</ref>, "of Marseilla in Prvence"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180605]</ref>,  "of Marseille in Provence in the kingdome of ffrance"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170954]</ref>, and "of Marseilles in Provence in ffrance"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180111]</ref>.
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However, we also see "of Angiers in ffrance"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170959]</ref>, "of Saint Malo in ffrance"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170963]</ref>, and "of XXXX neere Marseilla in ffrance"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180106]</ref>
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'''United Provinces'''
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The provincial context of Dutch towns and cities is frequently given, though Amsterdam is often described simply as "of Amsterdam". Thus towns are "of Zealand", "of Holland", of "North Holland", and "of ffreisland".
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Occasionally, there is even greater precision, such as Cornelius Petrson, who was a forty year old mariner and skipper of the ship the XXXX "of MiddlelXX in the Jurisdiction of Edam in North holland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180150]</ref>, Claus Arianson,  a twenty-one year old mariner "of the Holder neere the Texell in Holland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180183]</ref>, Cornelius hendrickson, a twenty-three year old mariner "of the ould Watring neere Amsterdam"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180342]</ref>, Dirricke vansane, the twenty-seven year old skipper of the ''Orange Tree'', who was "of Rarerop in Waterland in Holland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180343]</ref>, and Hessell Peterson, a twenty-six year old mariner, who was the stiersman of the XXXX, "of ?Crimaruna a village neere hartingen in ffreazland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180666]</ref>.
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* "of kampen in Gelderland"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180688]</ref>
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'''West Indies'''
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* George Clarke, forty-four year old mariner, "of the Island of Barbados"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170983]</ref>
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* Jon Stanworth, a thirty-seven year old planter "late of the Iland of Antigo"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]</ref>
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'''Smaller political or administrative entities'''
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<u>Dukedom of Holsten/Holstein/Holsteyn</u>
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* "of Tundren within the Dukedom of Holsteyn" and "the said ship was bound only with the present loading from the River of Berghen unto Tundren within the said Dukedom of Hosten where the same was all to bee unladen and delivered"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.69r P1170512]</ref>
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* "to be transported thense to TundrXXX in holstein in the dominion or Territories of the Duke of holstein"; knows it is "accustomed for Marchants and others to buy horses in Norway, and transport them from Berghen into Holstein land, and saith the said Andrew hayer liveth at Yinderua in holstein land aforesaid in the territories of the said Duke"; "About five yeares since Swedes fell into the said dukedome of holstein and carried thense almsot all the horses of the countrey"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.71r P1170516]</ref>
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* "of Housum in the Dukedom of holstein"<ref>[http://marinelives-transcript.org/scripto/scripto/?scripto_action=transcribe&scripto_doc_id=2429&scripto_doc_page_id=2545 HCA 13/72 f.90v P1170516]</ref>
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* Did the concept of "Holsteinland" extend beyond the Dukedom of Holstein, or did the Dukedom of Holstein lie within the Kingdom of Denmark? See: "Of Sondersea?in holsteinland in the Dominion of the kinge of Denmarke"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170854]</ref>
  
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* FOOTNOTE TEMPLATE:
 
  
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- ''HCA 13/71 f.XXXX Case: XXXX; Deposition: XXXX; Date: XXXX. Transcribed by XXXX''<ref>[http://XXXXX Electronic link to a digital source]</ref>
 
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__TOC__
 
 
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==Suggested links==
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==Concept of 'Ethnicity': did it exist?==
  
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[[PhD Forum|PhD Forum]]
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'''Armenians'''
  
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[[PhD Forum#head-94d5186ba3ec63d1ebcb1e902a2d13ac15f0c527|Themes]]
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Hojar Sefer was described in a series of HCA depositions he made in 1651 as a merchant of Spahan (sometimes spelled as Spaham or Spaheim).  He described himself in one of his depositions as "a Persian borne in the Dominion of the kinge of Persia and there dwelleth"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? PXXXXXX]</ref>, but it is clear that he regarded himself as Armenian as well as Persian, and signed all his depositions in Armenian script.<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? PXXXXXX]</ref>
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Certainly, he recognised his fellow merchants, the producents of several related causes, with whom he had been travelling in the French crewed ship the ''Saint Martin'', as "Armenians".  He states, for example, in one deposition that "the said producents were and are Armenians and Inhabitants of Smirna, and subiects of the Grand Seignor or Turkish Emperour.."<ref>[http://marinelives-transcript.org/scripto/scripto/?scripto_action=transcribe&scripto_doc_id=4165&scripto_doc_page_id=4000 HCA 13/65 f.59r P1170492]</ref>. In this statement he defines the producents in terms of what we would now call 'ethnicity' (which we impregnate with loose ideas of physical appearance, culture and religion), together with residence and subjectdom.
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The Admiralty Court also recognised the status of most of the producents in the related causes as Armenians. The cause mentioned above is titled by the Court as "The claime of Cogia Jacomo and Cogia Kaniar Armenian Marchants for their goods in the shipp the ''Saint Martin'' whereof Michael Audric was Captaine".<ref>[http://marinelives-transcript.org/scripto/scripto/?scripto_action=transcribe&scripto_doc_id=4165&scripto_doc_page_id=3988 HCA 13/65 f.53v P1170481]</ref>  Interestingly, their status as Armenians is used by the Court to define them, rather than the more usual reference in such case titles to individuals being of a certain town and country.
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The status of Persian birth and/or residence appears to have been strong. In the cause of just one merchant from Persia (who was undoubtedly Armenian), the closely related cause is titled:
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"''The Clayme of Coyia Petro of Spaham in Persia for his goods taken in the ship the Saint Martyn whereof Michael Audric was comader''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.85r P1170544]</ref>
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In another of the closely related causes, the title of the cause distinguishes between the two producents:
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"''The claime of Ugala Armono a Persian and Agi MaXXX and Armenian for their goods in the ''Saint Martin''.''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.59r P1170492]</ref>
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Hojah Sefer knew both these producents and states in his deposition relating to this cause that the goods for the first "the said Ugula A?rumeno "were laded by his factors at Smyrna, since Ugula himself was then at Ligorna) and the goods of the said Marco were laden by himselfe".  He does not pick up on the distinction made in the title of the cause between the two producents, stating that "the said producents were and are Armenians and Inhabitants of Smirna, and subiects of the Grand Seignor or Turkish Emperour.."
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Another merchant "of the citie of Spaham in Persia", Hojah Peter, introduced the concept of "descent" in his deposition to describe the three producents described in the title of the cause as "Merchants of Armenia":
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"''"The said Cogia Jacomo, Cogia Sarankan, and Cogia Safer were and are Marchants descended from Armenia, and doe use to trade betwixt Persia and Smyrna and alsoe from parts and places of the Dominions of the Turkish Emperour to Smyrna aforesaid and from Smyrna to Ligorne, and doe use to trade and traffique in those quarters with the English and others and hold faire correspondence and commerce with them there which heee knoweth, because hee alsoe tradeth in like maner in those places and thereby hath observed the traffique of the said producents as aforesaid''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.52r P1170478]</ref>
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Hojah Peter goes on to make clear that "hee this deponent was and is a Persian a native of the foresaid citie of Spahan" and expands on the status of the producents:
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"''the said Cogia Jacomo dwells in or neere the citie of Rivan in Persia and was borne there, and the said Cogia Safer was borne and liveth in Spaheim aforesaid, and the said Cogia Sarankan was borne in Constantinople aforesaid, and further saith that none of them are ffrench nor belonge to any ffranch factorie in Constantinople, Smyrna, or elsewhere nor have any relation to the ffranch nor pay any tribute or owe any obedience to the ffranch kinge, but are free marchants for themselves, living in Persia and Constantinople as aforesaid''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.52v P1170479]</ref>
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In this light, the Armenian descent of the merchants was an important unifying characteristic, given that they were born in three different towns or cities, of which two were in Persia and one in the Dominions of the Turkish Emperour, and live in different towns or cities. Unmentioned, but implicit, is that they shared the Armenian language as their primary written language.  This has to be inferred (though without certainty) from the signatures of the deponents who describe them.  These deponents, some of whom who describe themselves as Armenian, all sign their depositions in distinctive Armenian script.<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX, HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX, HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX]</ref>
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'''Jews'''
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It is interesting to compare this Court's descriptive treatment of Armenians with its descriptive treatment of Jews resident in the United Netherlands and elsewhere. ADD TEXT
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'''Moslems'''
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'''Germany or Germania'''
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* SEE: Nicholas Sterley, 28, merchant "of the hansatowne of Lubeck"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180681 Deposition of Nicholas Sterley, dated 24th July 1652]</ref>
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'''Italy'''
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* "of the Cittie of Naples"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.92r P1170558]</ref>
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* "of the Ile of Corsica in Italy"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.149v P1170669]</ref>
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* "of Genoa"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.149v P1180265]</ref>
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* Multiple identity of the Tuscan port city of Livorno, Legorno, or Leghorne, e.g. "deigo Nunez Lopez Merchant of Leghorne"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.149v P1180616]</ref>
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''''Of Polish extraction''''
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The case of XXXX suggests a mixed or blended geographical self-perception and public identity. Sibrand Jacobson is described within a single phrase as "a gentleman of Poland, and a merchant of Amsterdam" in contrast to four other named persons, including the deponent, who are described as "all of Amsterdam".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]</ref> The deponent goes on to explain:
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"''the said Sibrand Jacobson hee saith was and is an Amsterdam man and there borne but called a gentleman of Poland, because hee is of Polish extraction, and being a principall owner, the shipp is called after his name.''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]</ref>
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Indeed the ship's dutch name appears to have been that of "Youcker" or "Yoncker", which resembles the german term "Junker" for eastern landed gentry. But the ship itself "belongeth to the port of Amsterdam".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]</ref>
  
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[[Worth more than hee oweth|Worth more than hee oweth]]
 
 
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==Language and identity==
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==Micro-locations==
  
 
XXXX
 
XXXX
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==Birthplace and identity==
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==Regional and provincial identity==
  
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XXXX
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One might presume that deposition summaries, giving name, age and location of a deponent, would reflect the self-description of witnesses when they identify themselves to the proctors and court clerks. However, witnesses who give multiple depositions at different dates are not always consistently described. So it is possible that at least some of the variation in geographical descriptions reflects the scribe, rather than the deponent.  Alternatively, the individual deponent may have had a flexible sense of geographical identity.
  
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For example, the twenty-five year old merchant, Thomas Tasse, gave separate statements on ten occasions, as recorded in HCA 13/65 - dated 25th October 1651, 19th November 1651, 3rd December 1651,  12th December 1651, 13th December 1651, 15th December 1651, 24th December 1651, and 29th June 1652, with a further two statements of uncertain date. Seven out of ten statements describe Tasse as "of the cittie (or citty) of Antwerp(e).<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170701, P1170849, P1170856, P1170858, P1170886, P1170860, P1170868]</ref>  One states simply "of Antwerp",<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170835]</ref> and two place Antwerp in a provincial context, with one stating "of Antwerpe in fflanders"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170672]</ref> and the other "of Antwerp in Brabant".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180573]</ref>
 
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==Religion and identity==
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==Merchant identity as a special case?==
  
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XXXX
+
The distance travelled, and the frequency of such, travel by a number of the merchants revealed in HCA depositions in the 1650s never ceases to surprise the modern reader.
  
 +
For example, a twenty-eight year old bachelor and merchant of the free city of Aken (Aachen, or Aix-la-chapelle), was born in Aken, but left at the age of fifteen for France, where he dwelled for four years, before embarking on further travels.
 +
 +
The Admiralty Court described him in the deposition summary as "Antonio van Ganspoule of Aken".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180681: Deposition dated 24 July 1652]</ref>
 +
 +
This is how he described his life and travels, in response to an interrogatory regarding his and others goods on the ''ffortune'' of Middleborough.  The seizure of the ship took place on
 +
 +
"''"the first day of this instant moneth of July old stile about twelve miles off Waterford in the night time, at which time the said shipp the ffortune was in her course from the Brazila for delfts haven in holland and came from the Brazila on the eigth of May last of the foresaid stile at which time this deponent imbarqued himselfe and continued aboard till her seizure.''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180683]</ref>
 +
 +
"XXXX"
 +
 +
Moreover, merchants (and mariners) appear in places, and transport goods between, and communicate between, pairs of places which can surprise a modern reader who may be thinking of major cities and of hub and spoke models of commerce.
 +
 +
For example, Mr ffletcher, an Englishman, pops up in Brazil handing a letter to a merchant of the hansatowne of Lubeck in ffarnambuco, Brazil, to be transported to Zealand in the United Netherlands.<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180683]</ref>
 +
 +
There was a constant mixing of merchants in port towns. Richard Wakeman, a thirty-seven year old gentleman of Kingston on Thames in Surrey, remembered the port of Tituan (on the Barbary coast) six years before, which he had visited in the ship the XXX. The ship the ''Elizabeth and Mary'' had arrived at the port with a cargazoone of tobaccoes.
 +
 +
"''Tobaccoes were a very vendible commodity at that tyme and place as that diverse Merchants both Englishe; Jewes; and others were very desirous to buy the same and to that purpose did goe on board the said ship''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170768]</ref>
 
----
 
----
−
==Concept of 'Nation'==
+
==Mariner identity worth exploring==
  
−
XXXX
+
Merchants and merchants identities are easier to explore than mariners and their identities.  However, mariners and their identities provide a fertile subject, the exploration of which may correct facile modern assumptions regarding mobility and identity.
 +
 
 +
Mariners, by the nature of their occupation or "profession", were highly mobile through their voyages. It is, however, less clear, how mobile they were in terms of their residence.
 +
 
 +
It is likely, given the expansion of commercial marine activities in the first half of the C17th, that many mariners moved from all over England (and Ireland, Wales and Scotland) to London and its surrounds. However, some mariners also moved for part of their lives to overseas locations.  It is hard to distinguish mariners disembarking in Lisbone, Barbados and Livorno for a few months, before shipping out again, and those who had more permanently relocated to these locations. Occasionally, in the Admiralty Court records there is a suggestion that a more permanent move has been made.
 +
 
 +
For example, Stephen Puckett, a thirty-one year old mariner and saile maker on the Dutch ship the Liefda alias the Love, stated that he was "borne at Colchester in Essex and lately dwelling att Rotterdam in Holland".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180266]</ref>
 +
 
 +
In another example, George Steward, a mariner and carpenter of the Elizabeth and Mary stated that he was: "now of Shadwell but late of Invernesse in Scotland"<ref>[http://marinelives-transcript.org/scripto/scripto/?scripto_action=transcribe&scripto_doc_id=2045&scripto_doc_page_id=2340 HCA 13/72 f.13r P1140933]</ref>
 +
 
 +
In a further example, the forty-four year old mariner George Clarke, was simply "of the Iland of Barbados"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170983]</ref>
  
 
----
 
----
−
==Merchant identity as a special case?==
+
===Ships with owners and freighters from several countries===
  
−
The distance and frequency of the travel of a number of the merchants revealed in HCA depositions in the 1650s never ceases to surprise the modern reader.
+
"the said shipp the ''Saint ffrancis'' doth belong unto the Port of Marseilla in ffrance some of the Owners whereof and of the lading therein doe live and inhabit and have theire families in Marseillas and are ffrench and Subiects of the king of ffrance and others are Inhabitants att Lygorne and Italians by Birth"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180106]</ref>
  
−
For example, a twenty-eight year old bachelor and merchant of the free city of Aken (Aachen, or Aix-la-chapelle), who was born in Aken, but left at the age of fifteen for France, where he dwelled for four years, before embarking on further travels.  This is how he described his life and travels, in response to an interrogatory regarding his and others goods on the XXXX, which had been seized by the Parliaments ships off XXX en route from ffarnambuco in Brazila to Rotterdam:
 
 
----
 
----
−
==Net indebtedness as a source of status?==
+
===Mixed crews===
  
−
"Worth more than hee oweth"
+
Ships crews often contained members from several countries.  Although it is not yet possible to quantify this statement, a fair number of deponents comment on the country or port of origin of crew members.
  
 +
For example, the company of the ''James'', a ship seized bzy XXXX at XXXX, were all English men "save only one Maltesa and a Greekes Boy"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170722]</ref>
 +
 +
ADD EXAMPLES
 
----
 
----
−
==Significance of being a househoulder?==
+
==Absence of debt as a source of status?==
  
 +
'''Worth more than hee oweth'''
 +
 +
* "Hee cometh requested by Mr Southwood to testifie the truth of his knowledge in this cause for which hee neither hath receaved or Expecteth to receave any consideration save only for his losse of tyme but who must pay him for that hee hee yet knoweth not And saith hee is worth more than hee oweth And liveth in kingstreete in Stepney parishe where hee hath lived by the space of about three yeares and before that dwelt neere the Hermitage and in the parishe of Saint Catherine and getteth his liveing by unladeing of shipps which deliver theire ladeing in the River of Thames and saith hee is a howse=keeper and payeth all manner of dutyes and Taxes which are usually levied either for Church Poore, or the Army according as hee is assessed"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180459]</ref>
 +
 +
----
 +
==Language skills==
 +
 +
* "he cann speake the ffrench and some little of the Italian Language, but cannot speake the Language usually spoken at Zant by the people Natives of that place."<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170722]</ref>
 +
 +
* Deponent has known John Baptista Benzi for the last 7 years, and states that Benzi has owned the ship the Saint Michael for the entire period; deponent is acquainted with "her building at Amsterdam which her building was there begun in the moneth of January 1649 videlicet two yeeres since"; deponent was asked by the producent to assist in advice "in the setting up and placeing the masts of the said shipp the Saint Michael after her launching"; the master appointed by Benzi was "an Italian named Viola, and unacquainted with the dutch language and soe unable to give directions thereabouts"; Signior Benzi set out with ship from Amsterdam to Genoa on a trading voyage; deponent was master of the Saint John, and accompanied the Saint Michaell until Plimouth, where he parted, though he also went to Genoa; at Genoa the Saint Michael was freighted for Lisbon, via Ligorne, , and the St John for hamborowe; the Saintt Michael was seized in the Streights mouth by Prince Rupert, "and carried to the Ilands"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170962]</ref>
 +
 +
----
 +
==Significance of being a householder?==
 +
 +
In the hotly disputed case of "Thomas Awres and Companie against a Ship of unknowne name and her ladeing of corne and against Sophia Ernest and others", householder status is cited for all the many witnesses, as rival proctors and solicitors sought to establish the stable abode of their deponents and to attack that of those deposing for the opposite camp.
 +
 +
'''Lodger or householder?'''
 +
 +
It is likely that many if not most sailors or commonmen on ships were lodgers, rather than householders. Thus XXX "is a singleman who lives with his father near Paulswharfe London",<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170757]</ref> and William Jenkin, a thirty year old mariner is "Of Shadwell lodging at Roger Greenes in Shadwell aforesaid"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170937]</ref>.
 +
 +
'''Longevity or permanency of residence'''
 +
 +
* Daniell Crofford a thirty-six year old mariner is "Of Wapping in the County of Middlesex, "where hee hath lived for these tenne yeares last past"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1170757]</ref>
 +
 +
* ffrancis Purret, thirty-three year old sailor, "of fflushing in Zealand where hee hath dwelt about foure yeares last past and before that at dunquirke from his birth, where hee was borne"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180016]</ref>
 +
----
 +
==Political affiliation and identity?==
 +
 +
Political views are rarely expressed, recognised, or commented on, in Admiralty Court depositions.  One exception is in the evidence in the case of Jacob Withers, who had visited the island of Antego as the Chirugion of the shipp the ''Proprietor'' in 1647. He had stayed on, purchasing and planting a sizeable estate. Seeking to retrieve goods of his which had been seized as he returned to England in late 1651, Withers needed to demonstrate his loyalty to the Parliament.  John Stanworth, a thirty seven year old planter "late of the Iland of  Antigo" observed of Withers' four years on the island that "during this entire time declared himself well affected to the Commonwealth".<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]</ref>
 +
 +
"''About foure yeares since the arlate Jacob Withers did come as Chirurgion of the shipp the Proprietor from London and arrived in the Oland of Antigo where hee hath inhabited and remained untill the 4th day of October 1651 last past" and during this entire time declared himself well affected to the Commonwealth''"<ref>[HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]</ref>
 +
----
 +
==Food and identity==
  
−
XXXXX
+
'''We are what we eat?'''

Latest revision as of 13:56, November 16, 2016

Identity

Language and identity


The mid-C17th commercial world was one of many languages coexisting and interacting, without a super-regional dominant trade language. By exploring the languages used in communication by mariners and merchants of different ports, we may discover new insights into relations within geographical areas such as the Mediterranean and the East Country.

Mid-C17th admiralty testimony regarding language, especially spoken languages, sometimes surprises modern expectations. Such testimony reveals complex relationships connecting language and identity (both personal and group).

Case study: Italian

When the ship the Ryall was surprised and taken by the Tyger, on the immediate service of the Commonwealth, the boatswaine of the Tyger was dispatched in the ship's yawle to bord the Ryall and to enquire where the ship came from and to learn the source of its lading of rice. The boatswaine was a forty-four year old mariner named John Snarey from Blackwall in the parish of Stepney. The man who replied was a Greek ("a Grecian"), who spoke to him in Italian, and at least part of the ensuing conversation took place in Italian, the English boatswaine understanding the Italian tongue.

"Hee was in the first place answered by a Grecian (who spoke the Italian tongue which this deponent understandeth, and who was of the said ship that the said Rice was taken in the AXXXX by the Italian men of warre from the Turks and that the same upon the Coast of Morea within the Archipelagos was in the Lumpe or GroXX Laden on board the Ryall by the Captaine of the said ship who was a frenchman and who had bought the said Rice of the said Italian man of warre, the said Grecian allsoe then affirmeinge and telling this deponent that after such tyme as the said ffrench Captaine had soe bought the same the Company of the Ryall by theire said Captaines order did make such speed to unlade and relate the same on board the Ryall that they never measured the saiid Rice but least any obstruction by any other men of warre should interveene the same withall hast was put on bord the Ryall out of the Italian man of warre unmeasured, and that the said Rice was XXXXXXXX measureing as this deponent conceiveth it was first prize as being taken from the Turkes and now againe prize in the second place as being taken by the Tyger..."[1]

John Snarney continued his evidence, offering confirmation of his earlier statement:

"Soe much hee this deponent saith was affirmed and told to the deponent ymediatly after both by a West ffrenchman who spoke the Italian Tongue and was Gunners mate of the said ship and allsoe by one Charles an Englishman who was carpenter thereof"[2]

How did the boatswaine come to understand Italian, and how good and active was his knowledge? An answer by the same boatswaine to a crosse interrogatorie provides insight into the nature and source of his knowledge of Snarney's Italian:

"Hee saith and deposeth hee cannot speake the french tongue but saith hee can both speake and understand a great part of the comon or vulgar Italian tongue which hee learnt by his trading and travelling for many yeares together to Genoa, Leghorne, Naples. Civita Vechia, Messina Palermo Trapane Venice Zant, and other parts and places thereabouts"[3]

The boatswaine's skills in comprehending and speaking Italian as a trade language were significant, though he says nothing about an ability to read or write in Italian. They had been acquired "on the job", and were considerably stronger than the language skills of his contest, Francis Douglas. Douglas was a twenty-nine year old mariner and foresmast man on the Triumph. Like Snarney he was from the London areas, giving his residence as the parish of Saint Olave within the Burroughe of Southwarke. He boarded the Ryall the following morning, and stated that:

"Hee can speake a little both of the Spanishe and Italian tongues and can in some measure understand them And saith that hee learnt the said languages by his often being at Cadiz Saint Lucar, Genoa Leghorne, And other places thereabout"[4]


Birthplace and identity


XXXX


Religion and identity


The religious beliefs of Admiralty Court deponents are rarely explored in Court. However, occasional references to such beliefs offer some insights into identity.

Most (though not all) of the deponents from Spain, Italy, and France will have been Roman Catholics. However, there will also have been Jews, Calvinists, and others.

What evidence have we uncovered to date?

XXX


Concept of 'Nation'


Barbary

Cities on the southern shore of the Mediterrean, are usually referred to in Admiralty Court depositions without further geographical names. Thus, deponents refer to "Sally, "Tituan", and "XXX", without placing them "in Barbary".

Their linguistic treatment resembles that of Italian cities mentioned in Admiralty Court depositions. "Genoa", "Venice, and "Livorno" are identified without placing them in Italy, or in the case of Livorno in "Tuscany".

Exceptions exist. XXXX stated that he departed in October 1650 from Cadiz in a

"shipp of Amsterdam called the Moone commanded by Gavart Reael bound for Sally in Barbary whither this deponent went to redeeme one William ff?earne a Captaine"[5]

Are there differences in how mariners and merchants of different countries use geographical terminology?

CHECK THE FOLLOWING REFERENCE: ?French owned ship set sail from Lygorne bound for Alexandria "on the Coast of Scanderon in Barbary"[6]

East Country

The treatment of countries to the North and East of modern Germany, and including several cities now in Germany, is more complex than that of the southern shore of the Mediterranean. This may reflect the complex political reality, as defined and fought over in wars throughout the early part of the C17th, and greater familiarity with the geographical area.

The term "East country" is used with moderate frequency in Admiralty Court depositions, to give a general sense of trading area. But when towns and cities are named, and placed in a broader context, they tend to be placed within named political entities, such as "of dantsicke in Poland"[7], "of Turnovia in Poland"[8], "of Stockholme in Swedland"[9], "of Stockholme within the Kingdome of Swadland"[10], "of Copenhagen in denmarke"[11], and "of Stettin in Pomerland"[12].

However, there is also an example of "of Stettyn", without any broader context[13].

Denmark

  • "Of Sonder Sea in danamarke"[14]


  • "Of Zuder-Zea in the Dukedom of holstein and the kingdome of Denmarke"[15]


Norway

Norway is a tricky one. Referred to as a country in the deposition of XXXX, towns within Norway such as Berghen (Nor=Berghen, Bergen) are usually described simply as "of Norway". However, the deponent Christopher Aronson, master of the ship the Saint Oula, is described more fully as "of Tunsbury in Norway in the kingdome of Denmarke"[16]. Yet the claim for which he was deposing is titled more simply:

"The Claime of Andrew Matson and Company Merchants of Tunsbury in Norway for the shipp the Saint Oula whereof Christopher Aronsen is Master taken by the shipp the Nonshuch ketch whereof Captaine John king is Comander etcetera"[17]

Germany

The term "Germany" appears only occasionally in Admiralty Court depositions, as in "of Breme in Germany"[18] (Though see also "of Bremen in the Dominion of the kinge of Denmarke"[19])

Free cities

Hamburgh, typically spelled either "Hamborowe" and "Hamborough", appears almost always simply as "of Hamborowe" and "of Hambourgh"

  • "of the free citie of Aken"[20], and ""Hee this deponent was and is a subiect of the free towne of Aken in Germanie, where hee was home and lived till hee was about fifteene yeares, and then hee went and travailed into ffrance and dwelt there foure yeares, and since hee hath continued travailing and voyaging up and downe being a XXXXX and hath bin twice in Brazila"[21]


  • Nicholas Sterley, a twenty-eight year old merchant (in his own words) "was borne in the said free mark Imperiall hansatowne of Lubeck and lived there all his time till about three or foure yeares since in which space hee made two voyages to the Brazila, and that hee was and is a subiect of the said free state of Lubeck, and a batchelour"[22]


England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales

There is absolutely no mention of a unifying political entity such as "Great Britain"

England

Ireland

  • "of Dublin in Ireland"[23]


Scotland

Wales

The entity of Wales has little visibilty. Whereas towns and cities in Ireland are described, almost without exception, as "in Ireland", towns in Wales tend to be descibed by reference to their County, for example, "of Glamorgan".


Flanders/The Spanish Netherlands

  • "This deponent hath had and has correspondence in merchandize with him the said Cornelius and with his sonne the arlate Garrard knife who in the said dealing and correspondence they the said producents are in partnershipp and companie, and saith they were and are Dutchmen, and dwellers in the citie of Antwerp and subiects of the kinge of Spaine, and for such they were and are commonly accompted and reputed."[24]


  • Many of the merchants residing in Antwerp had Spanish names and trading links with Spain (and the Spanish West Indies?) were strong


  • "of Antwerpe in Braband"[25]


  • "of Ostend in fflanders" (frequent, rather than "of Ostend")


  • "of Bridges in fflanders"[26]


  • "of Gant in fflanders"[27]


  • "of Newport in fflanders"[28]


France

There is a clear tendency in the Admiralty court to place french towns within their provincial context, with or without a broader reference to "France" or the "Kingdom of France".

Thus, we see "of Saint Martin La BlaXX in Normandie"[29], "of ffrontot neare kilbeufe in Normandie"[30], "of Honfleur in Normandy within the Kingdome of France"[31], "of Marseilla in Prvence"[32], "of Marseille in Provence in the kingdome of ffrance"[33], and "of Marseilles in Provence in ffrance"[34].

However, we also see "of Angiers in ffrance"[35], "of Saint Malo in ffrance"[36], and "of XXXX neere Marseilla in ffrance"[37]


United Provinces

The provincial context of Dutch towns and cities is frequently given, though Amsterdam is often described simply as "of Amsterdam". Thus towns are "of Zealand", "of Holland", of "North Holland", and "of ffreisland".

Occasionally, there is even greater precision, such as Cornelius Petrson, who was a forty year old mariner and skipper of the ship the XXXX "of MiddlelXX in the Jurisdiction of Edam in North holland"[38], Claus Arianson, a twenty-one year old mariner "of the Holder neere the Texell in Holland"[39], Cornelius hendrickson, a twenty-three year old mariner "of the ould Watring neere Amsterdam"[40], Dirricke vansane, the twenty-seven year old skipper of the Orange Tree, who was "of Rarerop in Waterland in Holland"[41], and Hessell Peterson, a twenty-six year old mariner, who was the stiersman of the XXXX, "of ?Crimaruna a village neere hartingen in ffreazland"[42].

  • "of kampen in Gelderland"[43]


West Indies

  • George Clarke, forty-four year old mariner, "of the Island of Barbados"[44]


  • Jon Stanworth, a thirty-seven year old planter "late of the Iland of Antigo"[45]


Smaller political or administrative entities

Dukedom of Holsten/Holstein/Holsteyn

  • "of Tundren within the Dukedom of Holsteyn" and "the said ship was bound only with the present loading from the River of Berghen unto Tundren within the said Dukedom of Hosten where the same was all to bee unladen and delivered"[46]


  • "to be transported thense to TundrXXX in holstein in the dominion or Territories of the Duke of holstein"; knows it is "accustomed for Marchants and others to buy horses in Norway, and transport them from Berghen into Holstein land, and saith the said Andrew hayer liveth at Yinderua in holstein land aforesaid in the territories of the said Duke"; "About five yeares since Swedes fell into the said dukedome of holstein and carried thense almsot all the horses of the countrey"[47]


  • "of Housum in the Dukedom of holstein"[48]


  • Did the concept of "Holsteinland" extend beyond the Dukedom of Holstein, or did the Dukedom of Holstein lie within the Kingdom of Denmark? See: "Of Sondersea?in holsteinland in the Dominion of the kinge of Denmarke"[49]



Concept of 'Ethnicity': did it exist?


Armenians

Hojar Sefer was described in a series of HCA depositions he made in 1651 as a merchant of Spahan (sometimes spelled as Spaham or Spaheim). He described himself in one of his depositions as "a Persian borne in the Dominion of the kinge of Persia and there dwelleth"[50], but it is clear that he regarded himself as Armenian as well as Persian, and signed all his depositions in Armenian script.[51]

Certainly, he recognised his fellow merchants, the producents of several related causes, with whom he had been travelling in the French crewed ship the Saint Martin, as "Armenians". He states, for example, in one deposition that "the said producents were and are Armenians and Inhabitants of Smirna, and subiects of the Grand Seignor or Turkish Emperour.."[52]. In this statement he defines the producents in terms of what we would now call 'ethnicity' (which we impregnate with loose ideas of physical appearance, culture and religion), together with residence and subjectdom.

The Admiralty Court also recognised the status of most of the producents in the related causes as Armenians. The cause mentioned above is titled by the Court as "The claime of Cogia Jacomo and Cogia Kaniar Armenian Marchants for their goods in the shipp the Saint Martin whereof Michael Audric was Captaine".[53] Interestingly, their status as Armenians is used by the Court to define them, rather than the more usual reference in such case titles to individuals being of a certain town and country.

The status of Persian birth and/or residence appears to have been strong. In the cause of just one merchant from Persia (who was undoubtedly Armenian), the closely related cause is titled:

"The Clayme of Coyia Petro of Spaham in Persia for his goods taken in the ship the Saint Martyn whereof Michael Audric was comader"[54]


In another of the closely related causes, the title of the cause distinguishes between the two producents:

"The claime of Ugala Armono a Persian and Agi MaXXX and Armenian for their goods in the Saint Martin."[55]

Hojah Sefer knew both these producents and states in his deposition relating to this cause that the goods for the first "the said Ugula A?rumeno "were laded by his factors at Smyrna, since Ugula himself was then at Ligorna) and the goods of the said Marco were laden by himselfe". He does not pick up on the distinction made in the title of the cause between the two producents, stating that "the said producents were and are Armenians and Inhabitants of Smirna, and subiects of the Grand Seignor or Turkish Emperour.."

Another merchant "of the citie of Spaham in Persia", Hojah Peter, introduced the concept of "descent" in his deposition to describe the three producents described in the title of the cause as "Merchants of Armenia":

""The said Cogia Jacomo, Cogia Sarankan, and Cogia Safer were and are Marchants descended from Armenia, and doe use to trade betwixt Persia and Smyrna and alsoe from parts and places of the Dominions of the Turkish Emperour to Smyrna aforesaid and from Smyrna to Ligorne, and doe use to trade and traffique in those quarters with the English and others and hold faire correspondence and commerce with them there which heee knoweth, because hee alsoe tradeth in like maner in those places and thereby hath observed the traffique of the said producents as aforesaid"[56]

Hojah Peter goes on to make clear that "hee this deponent was and is a Persian a native of the foresaid citie of Spahan" and expands on the status of the producents:

"the said Cogia Jacomo dwells in or neere the citie of Rivan in Persia and was borne there, and the said Cogia Safer was borne and liveth in Spaheim aforesaid, and the said Cogia Sarankan was borne in Constantinople aforesaid, and further saith that none of them are ffrench nor belonge to any ffranch factorie in Constantinople, Smyrna, or elsewhere nor have any relation to the ffranch nor pay any tribute or owe any obedience to the ffranch kinge, but are free marchants for themselves, living in Persia and Constantinople as aforesaid"[57]

In this light, the Armenian descent of the merchants was an important unifying characteristic, given that they were born in three different towns or cities, of which two were in Persia and one in the Dominions of the Turkish Emperour, and live in different towns or cities. Unmentioned, but implicit, is that they shared the Armenian language as their primary written language. This has to be inferred (though without certainty) from the signatures of the deponents who describe them. These deponents, some of whom who describe themselves as Armenian, all sign their depositions in distinctive Armenian script.[58]


Jews

It is interesting to compare this Court's descriptive treatment of Armenians with its descriptive treatment of Jews resident in the United Netherlands and elsewhere. ADD TEXT

Moslems

Germany or Germania

  • SEE: Nicholas Sterley, 28, merchant "of the hansatowne of Lubeck"[59]


Italy

  • "of the Cittie of Naples"[60]


  • "of the Ile of Corsica in Italy"[61]



  • Multiple identity of the Tuscan port city of Livorno, Legorno, or Leghorne, e.g. "deigo Nunez Lopez Merchant of Leghorne"[63]


'Of Polish extraction'

The case of XXXX suggests a mixed or blended geographical self-perception and public identity. Sibrand Jacobson is described within a single phrase as "a gentleman of Poland, and a merchant of Amsterdam" in contrast to four other named persons, including the deponent, who are described as "all of Amsterdam".[64] The deponent goes on to explain:

"the said Sibrand Jacobson hee saith was and is an Amsterdam man and there borne but called a gentleman of Poland, because hee is of Polish extraction, and being a principall owner, the shipp is called after his name."[65]

Indeed the ship's dutch name appears to have been that of "Youcker" or "Yoncker", which resembles the german term "Junker" for eastern landed gentry. But the ship itself "belongeth to the port of Amsterdam".[66]


Micro-locations


XXXX



Regional and provincial identity


One might presume that deposition summaries, giving name, age and location of a deponent, would reflect the self-description of witnesses when they identify themselves to the proctors and court clerks. However, witnesses who give multiple depositions at different dates are not always consistently described. So it is possible that at least some of the variation in geographical descriptions reflects the scribe, rather than the deponent. Alternatively, the individual deponent may have had a flexible sense of geographical identity.

For example, the twenty-five year old merchant, Thomas Tasse, gave separate statements on ten occasions, as recorded in HCA 13/65 - dated 25th October 1651, 19th November 1651, 3rd December 1651, 12th December 1651, 13th December 1651, 15th December 1651, 24th December 1651, and 29th June 1652, with a further two statements of uncertain date. Seven out of ten statements describe Tasse as "of the cittie (or citty) of Antwerp(e).[67] One states simply "of Antwerp",[68] and two place Antwerp in a provincial context, with one stating "of Antwerpe in fflanders"[69] and the other "of Antwerp in Brabant".[70]


Merchant identity as a special case?


The distance travelled, and the frequency of such, travel by a number of the merchants revealed in HCA depositions in the 1650s never ceases to surprise the modern reader.

For example, a twenty-eight year old bachelor and merchant of the free city of Aken (Aachen, or Aix-la-chapelle), was born in Aken, but left at the age of fifteen for France, where he dwelled for four years, before embarking on further travels.

The Admiralty Court described him in the deposition summary as "Antonio van Ganspoule of Aken".[71]

This is how he described his life and travels, in response to an interrogatory regarding his and others goods on the ffortune of Middleborough. The seizure of the ship took place on

""the first day of this instant moneth of July old stile about twelve miles off Waterford in the night time, at which time the said shipp the ffortune was in her course from the Brazila for delfts haven in holland and came from the Brazila on the eigth of May last of the foresaid stile at which time this deponent imbarqued himselfe and continued aboard till her seizure."[72]

"XXXX"

Moreover, merchants (and mariners) appear in places, and transport goods between, and communicate between, pairs of places which can surprise a modern reader who may be thinking of major cities and of hub and spoke models of commerce.

For example, Mr ffletcher, an Englishman, pops up in Brazil handing a letter to a merchant of the hansatowne of Lubeck in ffarnambuco, Brazil, to be transported to Zealand in the United Netherlands.[73]

There was a constant mixing of merchants in port towns. Richard Wakeman, a thirty-seven year old gentleman of Kingston on Thames in Surrey, remembered the port of Tituan (on the Barbary coast) six years before, which he had visited in the ship the XXX. The ship the Elizabeth and Mary had arrived at the port with a cargazoone of tobaccoes.

"Tobaccoes were a very vendible commodity at that tyme and place as that diverse Merchants both Englishe; Jewes; and others were very desirous to buy the same and to that purpose did goe on board the said ship"[74]


Mariner identity worth exploring


Merchants and merchants identities are easier to explore than mariners and their identities. However, mariners and their identities provide a fertile subject, the exploration of which may correct facile modern assumptions regarding mobility and identity.

Mariners, by the nature of their occupation or "profession", were highly mobile through their voyages. It is, however, less clear, how mobile they were in terms of their residence.

It is likely, given the expansion of commercial marine activities in the first half of the C17th, that many mariners moved from all over England (and Ireland, Wales and Scotland) to London and its surrounds. However, some mariners also moved for part of their lives to overseas locations. It is hard to distinguish mariners disembarking in Lisbone, Barbados and Livorno for a few months, before shipping out again, and those who had more permanently relocated to these locations. Occasionally, in the Admiralty Court records there is a suggestion that a more permanent move has been made.

For example, Stephen Puckett, a thirty-one year old mariner and saile maker on the Dutch ship the Liefda alias the Love, stated that he was "borne at Colchester in Essex and lately dwelling att Rotterdam in Holland".[75]

In another example, George Steward, a mariner and carpenter of the Elizabeth and Mary stated that he was: "now of Shadwell but late of Invernesse in Scotland"[76]

In a further example, the forty-four year old mariner George Clarke, was simply "of the Iland of Barbados"[77]


Ships with owners and freighters from several countries


"the said shipp the Saint ffrancis doth belong unto the Port of Marseilla in ffrance some of the Owners whereof and of the lading therein doe live and inhabit and have theire families in Marseillas and are ffrench and Subiects of the king of ffrance and others are Inhabitants att Lygorne and Italians by Birth"[78]


Mixed crews


Ships crews often contained members from several countries. Although it is not yet possible to quantify this statement, a fair number of deponents comment on the country or port of origin of crew members.

For example, the company of the James, a ship seized bzy XXXX at XXXX, were all English men "save only one Maltesa and a Greekes Boy"[79]

ADD EXAMPLES


Absence of debt as a source of status?


Worth more than hee oweth

  • "Hee cometh requested by Mr Southwood to testifie the truth of his knowledge in this cause for which hee neither hath receaved or Expecteth to receave any consideration save only for his losse of tyme but who must pay him for that hee hee yet knoweth not And saith hee is worth more than hee oweth And liveth in kingstreete in Stepney parishe where hee hath lived by the space of about three yeares and before that dwelt neere the Hermitage and in the parishe of Saint Catherine and getteth his liveing by unladeing of shipps which deliver theire ladeing in the River of Thames and saith hee is a howse=keeper and payeth all manner of dutyes and Taxes which are usually levied either for Church Poore, or the Army according as hee is assessed"[80]



Language skills


  • "he cann speake the ffrench and some little of the Italian Language, but cannot speake the Language usually spoken at Zant by the people Natives of that place."[81]


  • Deponent has known John Baptista Benzi for the last 7 years, and states that Benzi has owned the ship the Saint Michael for the entire period; deponent is acquainted with "her building at Amsterdam which her building was there begun in the moneth of January 1649 videlicet two yeeres since"; deponent was asked by the producent to assist in advice "in the setting up and placeing the masts of the said shipp the Saint Michael after her launching"; the master appointed by Benzi was "an Italian named Viola, and unacquainted with the dutch language and soe unable to give directions thereabouts"; Signior Benzi set out with ship from Amsterdam to Genoa on a trading voyage; deponent was master of the Saint John, and accompanied the Saint Michaell until Plimouth, where he parted, though he also went to Genoa; at Genoa the Saint Michael was freighted for Lisbon, via Ligorne, , and the St John for hamborowe; the Saintt Michael was seized in the Streights mouth by Prince Rupert, "and carried to the Ilands"[82]



Significance of being a householder?


In the hotly disputed case of "Thomas Awres and Companie against a Ship of unknowne name and her ladeing of corne and against Sophia Ernest and others", householder status is cited for all the many witnesses, as rival proctors and solicitors sought to establish the stable abode of their deponents and to attack that of those deposing for the opposite camp.

Lodger or householder?

It is likely that many if not most sailors or commonmen on ships were lodgers, rather than householders. Thus XXX "is a singleman who lives with his father near Paulswharfe London",[83] and William Jenkin, a thirty year old mariner is "Of Shadwell lodging at Roger Greenes in Shadwell aforesaid"[84].

Longevity or permanency of residence

  • Daniell Crofford a thirty-six year old mariner is "Of Wapping in the County of Middlesex, "where hee hath lived for these tenne yeares last past"[85]


  • ffrancis Purret, thirty-three year old sailor, "of fflushing in Zealand where hee hath dwelt about foure yeares last past and before that at dunquirke from his birth, where hee was borne"[86]

Political affiliation and identity?


Political views are rarely expressed, recognised, or commented on, in Admiralty Court depositions. One exception is in the evidence in the case of Jacob Withers, who had visited the island of Antego as the Chirugion of the shipp the Proprietor in 1647. He had stayed on, purchasing and planting a sizeable estate. Seeking to retrieve goods of his which had been seized as he returned to England in late 1651, Withers needed to demonstrate his loyalty to the Parliament. John Stanworth, a thirty seven year old planter "late of the Iland of Antigo" observed of Withers' four years on the island that "during this entire time declared himself well affected to the Commonwealth".[87]

"About foure yeares since the arlate Jacob Withers did come as Chirurgion of the shipp the Proprietor from London and arrived in the Oland of Antigo where hee hath inhabited and remained untill the 4th day of October 1651 last past" and during this entire time declared himself well affected to the Commonwealth"[88]


Food and identity


We are what we eat?
  1. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180053]
  2. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180054]
  3. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180055]
  4. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180056]
  5. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170637]
  6. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180107]
  7. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170910]
  8. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170898]
  9. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.62v P1170499]
  10. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.64r P1170502]
  11. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.71r P1170516]
  12. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1170870]
  13. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1180245]
  14. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1180238]
  15. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180420]
  16. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.118r P1170606]
  17. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.118r P1170606]
  18. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.4r P1170382]
  19. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.160r P1170690]
  20. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1180683]
  21. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1180684]
  22. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.?P1180682]
  23. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170932]
  24. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180642]
  25. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180573]
  26. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180140]
  27. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180271]
  28. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180540]
  29. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170951]
  30. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180111]
  31. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180548]
  32. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180605]
  33. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170954]
  34. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180111]
  35. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170959]
  36. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170963]
  37. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180106]
  38. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180150]
  39. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180183]
  40. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180342]
  41. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180343]
  42. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180666]
  43. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180688]
  44. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170983]
  45. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]
  46. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.69r P1170512]
  47. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.71r P1170516]
  48. ↑ HCA 13/72 f.90v P1170516
  49. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170854]
  50. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? PXXXXXX]
  51. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? PXXXXXX]
  52. ↑ HCA 13/65 f.59r P1170492
  53. ↑ HCA 13/65 f.53v P1170481
  54. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.85r P1170544]
  55. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.59r P1170492]
  56. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.52r P1170478]
  57. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.52v P1170479]
  58. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX, HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX, HCA 13/65 f.? XXXX]
  59. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180681 Deposition of Nicholas Sterley, dated 24th July 1652]
  60. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.92r P1170558]
  61. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.149v P1170669]
  62. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.149v P1180265]
  63. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.149v P1180616]
  64. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]
  65. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]
  66. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180664]
  67. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170701, P1170849, P1170856, P1170858, P1170886, P1170860, P1170868]
  68. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170835]
  69. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170672]
  70. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180573]
  71. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180681: Deposition dated 24 July 1652]
  72. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180683]
  73. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180683]
  74. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170768]
  75. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180266]
  76. ↑ HCA 13/72 f.13r P1140933
  77. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170983]
  78. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180106]
  79. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170722]
  80. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180459]
  81. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170722]
  82. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170962]
  83. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170757]
  84. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170937]
  85. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1170757]
  86. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180016]
  87. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]
  88. ↑ [HCA 13/65 f.? P1180132]

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