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‎Surgery in the Seventeenth Century

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‎Surgery in the Seventeenth Century

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‎Surgery in the Seventeenth Century

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== Surgery in the Seventeenth Century ==

In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure. Surgery was known as ‘the cutter’s art’, and surgeons, who worked with their hands, and were habitually in contact with diseased and rotting flesh, were looked down upon by their clean handed, university graduate, physician colleagues. Surgeons tended to learn their profession through practical apprenticeships, while physicians learned theirs, cerebrally, from books and lectures. However, that is not to say that surgery was unlearned, or unregulated; guilds, such as the Barber-Surgeons Company of London, provided both surgeons and patients with a degree of protection. The Renaissance had sparked an interest in anatomy, and had begun to challenge traditional thought and practice. It was a time of great change and development. Renowned master surgeons translated Latin documents into English, or French, to make them more accessible to young students and apprentices. They also published their own works, bestowing their knowledge and experience to the next generation, and reforming the macabre face of surgery in Europe.<ref>Turner, E. S.; McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>

In 1540 the rival Guild of Surgeons and Company of Barbers united to form the London Company of Barber-Surgeons. Barbers had been encouraged to perform minor surgery by the Church, because of their skill in the use of sharp blades, such as those used to tonsure monks, and subsequently they considered themselves barber-surgeons. Agreement was reached between the two opposing parties; surgeons would not cut hair, and barbers would not cut flesh. However, in reality those who performed surgery could be divided into three categories: master surgeons (who would have considered it beneath them to cut hair), barber-surgeons (who performed minor surgery, tooth pulling, and bloodletting), and barbers (who primarily cut hair, but may have had side-lines in pulling teeth and letting blood). The London Company of Barber-Surgeons was granted a royal charter, giving it the authority to license all surgeons in the London area. The Crown also sanctioned the dissecting of four executed criminals a year, giving the company the opportunity to study human anatomy in detail.<ref>Turner, E. S.; McCray Beier, Lucinda</ref>

The role of the surgeon was diverse in the seventeenth century. The most common surgical procedure, bloodletting, became the symbol of barber-surgery, with the white of the barber’s pole representing the bandages, which were tied around the patient’s arm to expose the veins. The veins were then opened with a lancet, revealing the blood within, the red of the barber’s pole. Along with the routine day-to-day practices of bloodletting and tooth pulling there were more painful, and life threatening, operations such as amputations and trepanning. However, major operations were not undertaken lightly, and were often only attempted as a last resort. The London Barber-Surgeons Company dictated that surgeons should consult with senior members of the company, on any case which carried the risk of death or maiming, and that the patients in such cases should be examined by members of the company. Surgeons who disregarded these rules were fined or imprisoned. In addition, surgeons relied on their reputation, and patients would naturally be put off by a high death rate. Patients could also sue for compensation if they were dissatisfied (or if their family were dissatisfied). By providing surgeons with strict guidelines, both surgeons and patients had some protection.<ref>McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>

Apprentice surgeons were expected to be literate in English, and have a basic knowledge of anatomy. Some proficiency in Latin was also desirable, being the language used in medical literature. However, during the sixteenth century Thomas Gale, and Ambroise Paré, translated Latin medical books into English and French respectively. Paré was also important in developing a substitute for painful hot oil cauterizing. Having exhausted his supplies of cauterizing oil, Paré experimented with the ingredients he had to hand, egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. The mixture proved a success, and patients recovered much quicker than with the oil. In England Richard Wiseman became known as the ‘father of English surgery’. His Several Chirurgical Treatises (1676) particularly dealt with naval and military surgery, and his Treatise of Wounds (1672) advertised itself as being intended particularly for ships’ doctors. John Woodall’s The Surgeon’s Mate (1617) long served as a manual for naval surgeons. Advances in the navy and military led to changes in surgery. The increase in the use of cannons and gunpowder, in particular, led to surgeons becoming bolder, as they sought to deal with severed limbs and gunshot wounds. Warfare led to more amputations, including amputations above the knee, which were rarely performed before the sixteenth century, being nearly always fatal. However they became more prominent in the seventeenth century, with a wooden leg or a hook being attached to the stump.<ref>McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>

Warfare, and naval and colonial expansion, led to a huge increase in demand for junior surgeons, willing to serve abroad or on board a ship. For young men with strong stomachs, naval or military service provided invaluable experience, and a valuable boost into the profession. Sea surgeons were tested for proficiency by the London Barber-Surgeons Company. The company also inspected each surgical chest before a voyage. John Woodall, who was surgeon-general of the East India Company, listed the ingredients and materials which should be included in the sea chest: ointments, plasters, laxatives, opiates. Sea surgeons had to be surgeon, physician and pharmacist in one. For them there was no occupational barrier between surgeon and physician. The effects of combat notwithstanding, the role of the sea surgeon would not have been too far removed from that of the role of surgeons on land. The bulk of the surgeon’s work was routine, small scale, and fairly safe (if at times excruciatingly painful). It involved dressing wounds, bloodletting, drawing teeth, dealing with ulcers, burns, and the effects of venereal disease. Surgeons were not butchers, or knife-happy. They needed nimble fingers, a steady hand, sharp sight, quick wit, boldness and sobriety. Such qualities are not so different from the skills which are required in the modern profession.<ref>Wear, Andrew; McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>

===== Reference List =====
McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers: The experience of illness in Seventeenth-Century England.'' London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1987
Porter, Roy ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine.'' Cambridge: Cambidge University Press, 2001
Turner, E. S. ''Call the Doctor - a social history of medical men.'' London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1958
Wear, Andrew ''Knowledge & Practice in English Medicine, 1550-1680.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:26, May 11, 2015
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−	== Surgery in the Seventeenth Century ==	+	== Surgery in the Seventeenth Century by Rachel Carter==

	In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure.		In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure.

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 == Surgery in the Seventeenth Century ==
-In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure. Surgery was known as ‘the cutter’s art’, and surgeons, who worked with their hands, and were habitually in contact with diseased and rotting flesh, were looked down upon by their clean handed, university graduate, physician colleagues. Surgeons tended to learn their profession through practical apprenticeships, while physicians learned theirs, cerebrally, from books and lectures. However, that is not to say that surgery was unlearned, or unregulated; guilds, such as the Barber-Surgeons Company of London, provided both surgeons and patients with a degree of protection. The Renaissance had sparked an interest in anatomy, and had begun to challenge traditional thought and practice. It was a time of great change and development. Renowned master surgeons translated Latin documents into English, or French, to make them more accessible to young students and apprentices. They also published their own works, bestowing their knowledge and experience to the next generation, and reforming the macabre face of surgery in Europe.<ref>Turner, E. S.''Call the Doctor - a social history of medical men.'' London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1958; McCray Beier, Lucinda ''Sufferers & Healers: The experience of illness in Seventeenth-Century England'' London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1987; Porter, Roy ed.''The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 </ref>
+In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure.
-In 1540 the rival Guild of Surgeons and Company of Barbers united to form the London Company of Barber-Surgeons. Barbers had been encouraged to perform minor surgery by the Church, because of their skill in the use of sharp blades, such as those used to tonsure monks, and subsequently they considered themselves barber-surgeons. Agreement was reached between the two opposing parties; surgeons would not cut hair, and barbers would not cut flesh. However, in reality those who performed surgery could be divided into three categories: master surgeons (who would have considered it beneath them to cut hair), barber-surgeons (who performed minor surgery, tooth pulling, and bloodletting), and barbers (who primarily cut hair, but may have had side-lines in pulling teeth and letting blood). The London Company of Barber-Surgeons was granted a royal charter, giving it the authority to license all surgeons in the London area. The Crown also sanctioned the dissecting of four executed criminals a year, giving the company the opportunity to study human anatomy in detail.<ref>Turner ''Call the Doctor''; McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''</ref>
+In 1540 the rival Guild of Surgeons and Company of Barbers united to form the London Company of
-The role of the surgeon was diverse in the seventeenth century. The most common surgical procedure, bloodletting, became the symbol of barber-surgery, with the white of the barber’s pole representing the bandages, which were tied around the patient’s arm to expose the veins. The veins were then opened with a lancet, revealing the blood within, the red of the barber’s pole. Along with the routine day-to-day practices of bloodletting and tooth pulling there were more painful, and life threatening, operations such as amputations and trepanning. However, major operations were not undertaken lightly, and were often only attempted as a last resort. The London Barber-Surgeons Company dictated that surgeons should consult with senior members of the company, on any case which carried the risk of death or maiming, and that the patients in such cases should be examined by members of the company. Surgeons who disregarded these rules were fined or imprisoned. In addition, surgeons relied on their reputation, and patients would naturally be put off by a high death rate. Patients could also sue for compensation if they were dissatisfied (or if their family were dissatisfied). By providing surgeons with strict guidelines, both surgeons and patients had some protection.<ref>McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
+The role of the surgeon was diverse in the seventeenth century. The most common surgical procedure,
-Apprentice surgeons were expected to be literate in English, and have a basic knowledge of anatomy. Some proficiency in Latin was also desirable, being the language used in medical literature. However, during the sixteenth century Thomas Gale, and Ambroise Paré, translated Latin medical books into English and French respectively. Paré was also important in developing a substitute for painful hot oil cauterizing. Having exhausted his supplies of cauterizing oil, Paré experimented with the ingredients he had to hand, egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. The mixture proved a success, and patients recovered much quicker than with the oil. In England Richard Wiseman became known as the ‘father of English surgery’. His Several Chirurgical Treatises (1676) particularly dealt with naval and military surgery, and his Treatise of Wounds (1672) advertised itself as being intended particularly for ships’ doctors. John Woodall’s The Surgeon’s Mate (1617) long served as a manual for naval surgeons. Advances in the navy and military led to changes in surgery. The increase in the use of cannons and gunpowder, in particular, led to surgeons becoming bolder, as they sought to deal with severed limbs and gunshot wounds. Warfare led to more amputations, including amputations above the knee, which were rarely performed before the sixteenth century, being nearly always fatal. However they became more prominent in the seventeenth century, with a wooden leg or a hook being attached to the stump.<ref>McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
+Apprentice surgeons were expected to be literate in English, and have a basic knowledge of anatomy.
-Warfare, and naval and colonial expansion, led to a huge increase in demand for junior surgeons, willing to serve abroad or on board a ship. For young men with strong stomachs, naval or military service provided invaluable experience, and a valuable boost into the profession. Sea surgeons were tested for proficiency by the London Barber-Surgeons Company. The company also inspected each surgical chest before a voyage. John Woodall, who was surgeon-general of the East India Company, listed the ingredients and materials which should be included in the sea chest: ointments, plasters, laxatives, opiates. Sea surgeons had to be surgeon, physician and pharmacist in one. For them there was no occupational barrier between surgeon and physician. The effects of combat notwithstanding, the role of the sea surgeon would not have been too far removed from that of the role of surgeons on land. The bulk of the surgeon’s work was routine, small scale, and fairly safe (if at times excruciatingly painful). It involved dressing wounds, bloodletting, drawing teeth, dealing with ulcers, burns, and the effects of venereal disease. Surgeons were not butchers, or knife-happy. They needed nimble fingers, a steady hand, sharp sight, quick wit, boldness and sobriety. Such qualities are not so different from the skills which are required in the modern profession.<ref>Wear, Andrew ''Knowledge & Practice in english Medicine, 1550-1680'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000; McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
+Warfare, and naval and colonial expansion, led to a huge increase in demand for junior surgeons,

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 == Surgery in the Seventeenth Century ==
-In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure. Surgery was known as ‘the cutter’s art’, and surgeons, who worked with their hands, and were habitually in contact with diseased and rotting flesh, were looked down upon by their clean handed, university graduate, physician colleagues. Surgeons tended to learn their profession through practical apprenticeships, while physicians learned theirs, cerebrally, from books and lectures. However, that is not to say that surgery was unlearned, or unregulated; guilds, such as the Barber-Surgeons Company of London, provided both surgeons and patients with a degree of protection. The Renaissance had sparked an interest in anatomy, and had begun to challenge traditional thought and practice. It was a time of great change and development. Renowned master surgeons translated Latin documents into English, or French, to make them more accessible to young students and apprentices. They also published their own works, bestowing their knowledge and experience to the next generation, and reforming the macabre face of surgery in Europe.<ref>Turner, E. S.; McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>
+In a time before anaesthetics and antiseptics, surgery was a painful, and even deadly, procedure. Surgery was known as ‘the cutter’s art’, and surgeons, who worked with their hands, and were habitually in contact with diseased and rotting flesh, were looked down upon by their clean handed, university graduate, physician colleagues. Surgeons tended to learn their profession through practical apprenticeships, while physicians learned theirs, cerebrally, from books and lectures. However, that is not to say that surgery was unlearned, or unregulated; guilds, such as the Barber-Surgeons Company of London, provided both surgeons and patients with a degree of protection. The Renaissance had sparked an interest in anatomy, and had begun to challenge traditional thought and practice. It was a time of great change and development. Renowned master surgeons translated Latin documents into English, or French, to make them more accessible to young students and apprentices. They also published their own works, bestowing their knowledge and experience to the next generation, and reforming the macabre face of surgery in Europe.<ref>Turner, E. S.''Call the Doctor - a social history of medical men.'' London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1958; McCray Beier, Lucinda ''Sufferers & Healers: The experience of illness in Seventeenth-Century England'' London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1987; Porter, Roy ed.''The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 </ref>
-In 1540 the rival Guild of Surgeons and Company of Barbers united to form the London Company of Barber-Surgeons. Barbers had been encouraged to perform minor surgery by the Church, because of their skill in the use of sharp blades, such as those used to tonsure monks, and subsequently they considered themselves barber-surgeons. Agreement was reached between the two opposing parties; surgeons would not cut hair, and barbers would not cut flesh. However, in reality those who performed surgery could be divided into three categories: master surgeons (who would have considered it beneath them to cut hair), barber-surgeons (who performed minor surgery, tooth pulling, and bloodletting), and barbers (who primarily cut hair, but may have had side-lines in pulling teeth and letting blood). The London Company of Barber-Surgeons was granted a royal charter, giving it the authority to license all surgeons in the London area. The Crown also sanctioned the dissecting of four executed criminals a year, giving the company the opportunity to study human anatomy in detail.<ref>Turner, E. S.; McCray Beier, Lucinda</ref>
+In 1540 the rival Guild of Surgeons and Company of Barbers united to form the London Company of Barber-Surgeons. Barbers had been encouraged to perform minor surgery by the Church, because of their skill in the use of sharp blades, such as those used to tonsure monks, and subsequently they considered themselves barber-surgeons. Agreement was reached between the two opposing parties; surgeons would not cut hair, and barbers would not cut flesh. However, in reality those who performed surgery could be divided into three categories: master surgeons (who would have considered it beneath them to cut hair), barber-surgeons (who performed minor surgery, tooth pulling, and bloodletting), and barbers (who primarily cut hair, but may have had side-lines in pulling teeth and letting blood). The London Company of Barber-Surgeons was granted a royal charter, giving it the authority to license all surgeons in the London area. The Crown also sanctioned the dissecting of four executed criminals a year, giving the company the opportunity to study human anatomy in detail.<ref>Turner ''Call the Doctor''; McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''</ref>
-The role of the surgeon was diverse in the seventeenth century. The most common surgical procedure, bloodletting, became the symbol of barber-surgery, with the white of the barber’s pole representing the bandages, which were tied around the patient’s arm to expose the veins. The veins were then opened with a lancet, revealing the blood within, the red of the barber’s pole. Along with the routine day-to-day practices of bloodletting and tooth pulling there were more painful, and life threatening, operations such as amputations and trepanning. However, major operations were not undertaken lightly, and were often only attempted as a last resort. The London Barber-Surgeons Company dictated that surgeons should consult with senior members of the company, on any case which carried the risk of death or maiming, and that the patients in such cases should be examined by members of the company. Surgeons who disregarded these rules were fined or imprisoned. In addition, surgeons relied on their reputation, and patients would naturally be put off by a high death rate. Patients could also sue for compensation if they were dissatisfied (or if their family were dissatisfied). By providing surgeons with strict guidelines, both surgeons and patients had some protection.<ref>McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>
+The role of the surgeon was diverse in the seventeenth century. The most common surgical procedure, bloodletting, became the symbol of barber-surgery, with the white of the barber’s pole representing the bandages, which were tied around the patient’s arm to expose the veins. The veins were then opened with a lancet, revealing the blood within, the red of the barber’s pole. Along with the routine day-to-day practices of bloodletting and tooth pulling there were more painful, and life threatening, operations such as amputations and trepanning. However, major operations were not undertaken lightly, and were often only attempted as a last resort. The London Barber-Surgeons Company dictated that surgeons should consult with senior members of the company, on any case which carried the risk of death or maiming, and that the patients in such cases should be examined by members of the company. Surgeons who disregarded these rules were fined or imprisoned. In addition, surgeons relied on their reputation, and patients would naturally be put off by a high death rate. Patients could also sue for compensation if they were dissatisfied (or if their family were dissatisfied). By providing surgeons with strict guidelines, both surgeons and patients had some protection.<ref>McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
-Apprentice surgeons were expected to be literate in English, and have a basic knowledge of anatomy. Some proficiency in Latin was also desirable, being the language used in medical literature. However, during the sixteenth century Thomas Gale, and Ambroise Paré, translated Latin medical books into English and French respectively. Paré was also important in developing a substitute for painful hot oil cauterizing. Having exhausted his supplies of cauterizing oil, Paré experimented with the ingredients he had to hand, egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. The mixture proved a success, and patients recovered much quicker than with the oil. In England Richard Wiseman became known as the ‘father of English surgery’. His Several Chirurgical Treatises (1676) particularly dealt with naval and military surgery, and his Treatise of Wounds (1672) advertised itself as being intended particularly for ships’ doctors. John Woodall’s The Surgeon’s Mate (1617) long served as a manual for naval surgeons. Advances in the navy and military led to changes in surgery. The increase in the use of cannons and gunpowder, in particular, led to surgeons becoming bolder, as they sought to deal with severed limbs and gunshot wounds. Warfare led to more amputations, including amputations above the knee, which were rarely performed before the sixteenth century, being nearly always fatal. However they became more prominent in the seventeenth century, with a wooden leg or a hook being attached to the stump.<ref>McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>
+Apprentice surgeons were expected to be literate in English, and have a basic knowledge of anatomy. Some proficiency in Latin was also desirable, being the language used in medical literature. However, during the sixteenth century Thomas Gale, and Ambroise Paré, translated Latin medical books into English and French respectively. Paré was also important in developing a substitute for painful hot oil cauterizing. Having exhausted his supplies of cauterizing oil, Paré experimented with the ingredients he had to hand, egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. The mixture proved a success, and patients recovered much quicker than with the oil. In England Richard Wiseman became known as the ‘father of English surgery’. His Several Chirurgical Treatises (1676) particularly dealt with naval and military surgery, and his Treatise of Wounds (1672) advertised itself as being intended particularly for ships’ doctors. John Woodall’s The Surgeon’s Mate (1617) long served as a manual for naval surgeons. Advances in the navy and military led to changes in surgery. The increase in the use of cannons and gunpowder, in particular, led to surgeons becoming bolder, as they sought to deal with severed limbs and gunshot wounds. Warfare led to more amputations, including amputations above the knee, which were rarely performed before the sixteenth century, being nearly always fatal. However they became more prominent in the seventeenth century, with a wooden leg or a hook being attached to the stump.<ref>McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
-Warfare, and naval and colonial expansion, led to a huge increase in demand for junior surgeons, willing to serve abroad or on board a ship. For young men with strong stomachs, naval or military service provided invaluable experience, and a valuable boost into the profession. Sea surgeons were tested for proficiency by the London Barber-Surgeons Company. The company also inspected each surgical chest before a voyage. John Woodall, who was surgeon-general of the East India Company, listed the ingredients and materials which should be included in the sea chest: ointments, plasters, laxatives, opiates. Sea surgeons had to be surgeon, physician and pharmacist in one. For them there was no occupational barrier between surgeon and physician. The effects of combat notwithstanding, the role of the sea surgeon would not have been too far removed from that of the role of surgeons on land. The bulk of the surgeon’s work was routine, small scale, and fairly safe (if at times excruciatingly painful). It involved dressing wounds, bloodletting, drawing teeth, dealing with ulcers, burns, and the effects of venereal disease. Surgeons were not butchers, or knife-happy. They needed nimble fingers, a steady hand, sharp sight, quick wit, boldness and sobriety. Such qualities are not so different from the skills which are required in the modern profession.<ref>Wear, Andrew; McCray Beier, Lucinda; Porter, Roy</ref>
+Warfare, and naval and colonial expansion, led to a huge increase in demand for junior surgeons, willing to serve abroad or on board a ship. For young men with strong stomachs, naval or military service provided invaluable experience, and a valuable boost into the profession. Sea surgeons were tested for proficiency by the London Barber-Surgeons Company. The company also inspected each surgical chest before a voyage. John Woodall, who was surgeon-general of the East India Company, listed the ingredients and materials which should be included in the sea chest: ointments, plasters, laxatives, opiates. Sea surgeons had to be surgeon, physician and pharmacist in one. For them there was no occupational barrier between surgeon and physician. The effects of combat notwithstanding, the role of the sea surgeon would not have been too far removed from that of the role of surgeons on land. The bulk of the surgeon’s work was routine, small scale, and fairly safe (if at times excruciatingly painful). It involved dressing wounds, bloodletting, drawing teeth, dealing with ulcers, burns, and the effects of venereal disease. Surgeons were not butchers, or knife-happy. They needed nimble fingers, a steady hand, sharp sight, quick wit, boldness and sobriety. Such qualities are not so different from the skills which are required in the modern profession.<ref>Wear, Andrew ''Knowledge & Practice in english Medicine, 1550-1680'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000; McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers''; Porter ''Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine''</ref>
-−
-===== Reference List =====
-McCray Beier ''Sufferers & Healers: The experience of illness in Seventeenth-Century England.'' London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1987
-Porter, Roy ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine.'' Cambridge: Cambidge University Press, 2001
-Turner, E. S. ''Call the Doctor - a social history of medical men.'' London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1958
-Wear, Andrew ''Knowledge & Practice in English Medicine, 1550-1680.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000